???????--????

???????--????
不安抗辩权
俞里江 朝阳法院

【案例简介】

2000年8月20日，甲公司和乙公司订立承揽合同一份。合同约定，甲公司按乙公司要求，为乙公司加工300套桌椅，交货时间为10月1日。乙公司应在合同成立之日起10日内支付加工费10万元人民币。合同成立后，甲公司积极组织加工。但乙公司没有按约定期限支付加工费。同年9月2 日，当地消防部门认为甲公司生产车间存在严重的安全隐患，要求其停工整顿。甲公司因此将无法按合同约定期限交货。乙公司在得知这一情形后，遂于同年9月10日向人民法院提起诉讼，要求甲公司承担违约责任。甲公司答辩称，合同尚未到履行期限，其行为不构成违约。即使其在合同履行期限届满时不能交货，也不是其责任，而是因为消防部分要求其停工。并且乙公司至今未能按合同约定支付加工费，其行为已构成违约，因此提起反诉，要求乙公司承担违约责任。

【问题的提出】

本案主要涉及到不安抗辩权的行使，以及《合同法》对不安抗辩权和预期违约制度的区分问题。

【法律依据】

《合同法》第68条规定：“应当先履行债务的当事人，有确切证据证明对方有下列情形之一的，可以中止履行：

（一）经营状况严重恶化；

（二）转移财产、抽逃资金，以逃避债务；

（三）丧失商业信誉；

（四）有丧失或者可能丧失履行债务能力的其他情形。

当事人没有确切证据中止履行的，应当承担违约责任。”

《合同法》第69条规定：“当事人依照本法第六十八条的规定中止履行的，应当及时通知对方。对方提供适当担保时，应当恢复履行。中止履行后，对方在合理期限内未恢复履行能力并且未提供适当担保的，中止履行的一方可以解除合同。”

【案情分析及处理结果】

在本案中，乙公司作为先履行合同的一方当事人未按合同约定支付加工款，其行为应属违约，但是甲公司在乙公司未能按合同约定期限支付加工费时，并没有提出解除合同，因此加工合同仍然对双方存在法律拘束力，乙公司仍应先行支付加工费，而甲公司也有义务交付货物。但由于当地消防部门认为甲公司生产车间存在严重的安全隐患，要求其停工整顿，因此可明知甲公司将无法按合同约定期限交货，根据《合同法》第68条的规定，乙公司有权主张不安抗辩，中止履行其义务。反之，如果要求乙公司先行支付加工费，由于甲公司已明显不能履行合同，乙公司利益将受到严重损害。

但是，乙公司并不能请求甲公司承担违约责任。因为根据我国《合同法》第69的规定，当事人一方在丧失履行债务能力的时候，另一方当事人只能中止履行其义务，并且在中止履行后，还应当立即通知对方，在对方提供适当担保时，应当恢复履行。在中止履行后，对方在合同期限内未恢复履行能力并且未提供适当担保的，中止履行的一方才可以解除合同。因此，乙公司在得知甲公司将不能履行合同时，只能中止履行其支付加工费的义务，而不能直接请求乙公司承担违约责任。

【存在的问题】

在本案审理过程中，对本案有以下不同的观点。一种观点认为，甲公司虽然不能在合同约定期限内交货，但乙公司违约在先，因此甲公司不应当承担违约责任，而应当由乙公司承担违约责任。第二种观点认为，合同履行期限虽未届满，但由于甲公司不得不停工整顿，其必然不能按照合同约定期限交货，其行为构成默示违约。因此，乙公司可以在合同履行期限届满前要求其承担违约责任。第三种观点认为，尽管甲公司将不能按照合同约定期限交货，但由于乙公司违约在先，乙公司不能主张甲公司默示违约，而要求其承担违约责任。

根据上述观点，可见本案的关键问题在于，如何正确区分不安抗辩权的行使与预期违约制度，以及对乙公司先行违约行为的认识。

我国《合同法》同时规定了预期违约中的默示违约制度和不安抗辩权制度。

起源于英美法系的默示违约制度和起源于大陆法系的不安抗辩权制度有很多相似之处。默示违约是合同当事人一方以自己的行为表明其将不履行合同的情形。默示违约与不安抗辩权存在很多相似之处：（1）这两种制度均承认在债务履行期到来之前，债务人虽然未明确表示将不履行债务，但有明显的证据证明债务人在约定的履行期到来之前将不能履行债务时，都赋予债权人一定的权利保护自己的利益；（2）两者均承认债务人消除债权人这种抗辩权（违约责任请求权）的方式是提供相应的担保或者立即履行债务；（3）两者的救济手段基本一致，在默示预期违约的救济中，预见人可以中止自己的履行而无当然的合同解除权，只有经过书面通知债务人要求其提供担保而经过合理的期限债务人仍未提供担保时，债权人才有解除权。而不安抗辩权也规定，先为给付方有权中止自己的履行，虽然许多大陆法系国家民法对中止履行一方是否有权解除合同规定并不明确，但是学理一般认为，中止履行的这种持续抗辩状态不能永久持续，故在对方未提供担保或未为给付经过一定期间，也应赋予抗辩人以解除合同的权利。

但是，这两种制度仍然有不同之处，第一，不安抗辩权的行使前提是双方当事人履行债务的时间有先后之分，而默示违约不以双方当事人履行债务的时间有先后之分为条件；第二，不安抗辩权发生在一方当事人财产明显减少或破产，而默示违约情形不限于此。因此，默示违约制度适用的范围要比不安抗辩权的使用范围广。

有学者指出，我国《合同法》规定的默示违约制度不完全等同于英美法系国家的默示违约制度。在英美法上，默示违约的情况包括一方在主观上将拒绝履行合同，也包括其在客观上将不能履行合同。而根据我国合同法的规定，默示违约是合同当事人以自己的行为表明其将不履行合同。这也就是说，默示违约只发生在一方在主观上将拒绝履行合同的情形下，而不包括其在客观上将不能履行合同的情形，这与明示违约无本质区别，因此，在合同法中，实际上未区分明示违约和默示违约，而只是要求默示违约以未能根据对方请求提供担保为要件。总之，我国《合同法》以主观不履行和客观不能履行为标准，将英美法系传统上都由默示违约制度调整的情形一分为二：主观上将不能履行合同的，由默示违约制度调整，客观上将不能履行合同的，由不安抗辩权制度调整。

在本案中，甲公司因消防部门要求停工整顿，而将不能按照合同约定的期限交货，并不表明其在主观上将不履行合同。因此，甲公司行为不构成默示毁约，但由于乙公司因停工整顿，而将不能按照合同约定期限交货，这表明其已经没有履行合同的能力，因此，根据我国《合同法》第68条的规定，乙公司可以主张不安抗辩，而中止履行其义务。

另外，由于在发生法定中止履行情形前，乙公司行为已经构成违约，甲公司可以请求其承担违约责任。但这一违约责任只是延期付款的责任，并且延期时间只应计算至乙公司提出中止履行其义务之日。在之后，乙公司是依中止履行其义务，不应承担违约责任。

????--???:???????

????--???:???????
俞里江:同时履行抗辩权
更新日期： 2005-8-22
【案例简介】

2001年1月，甲、乙公司签订了一项房屋买卖合同，合同约定甲公司于当年9月1日向乙公司交付房屋100套，并办理登记手续，乙公司则向甲公司分三次付款：第一期支付2千万元，第二期支付3千万元，第三期则在9月1日甲公司向乙公司交付房屋时支付5千万元。在签订合同后，乙公司按期支付了第一期、第二期款项共5千万元。9月1日，甲公司将房屋的钥匙移交乙公司，但并未立即办理房产所有权移转登记手续。因此，乙公司表示剩余款项在登记手续办理完毕后再付。在合同约定付款日期（9月1日）7日后，乙公司仍然没有付款，甲公司遂以乙公司违约为由诉至法院，请求乙公司承担违约责任。甲公司则以乙公司未按期办理房产所有权移转登记手续为由抗辩。

【问题的提出】

本案涉及到同时行使履行抗辩权的条件和法律后果。

【法律依据】

《合同法》第66条规定：“当事人互负债务，没有先后履行顺序的，应当同时履行。一方在对方履行之前有权拒绝其履行要求。一方在对方履行债务不符合约定时，有权拒绝其相应的履行要求。”

【案情分析及处理结果】

在本案中，从表面看，甲公司违背合同约定，未按期办理房地产所有权移转登记手续，已构成违约；而乙公司也违背了合同约定，在合同约定付款日期7日后，仍然没有付款，构成了履行迟延。但是，在考虑其是否应当承担违约责任时，尚应考虑其是否享有法定的抗辩权。
从本案看，乙公司按期向甲公司支付了第一期、第二期款项共5千万元，并无违约情形，甲公司并无理由行使后履行抗辩权，因此，其未按期办理房产所有权移转登记手续属于违约行为，应当承担相应的违约责任。

但对乙公司而言，由于其第三期款项的支付与甲公司交付房屋并办理房产所有权移转登记手续是应当同时履行的义务。由于本案中合同标的物是房屋，房屋属于不动产，与动产买卖合同不同，不动产的买卖中出卖人除负有交付标的物的义务之外，还应当完成产权移转登记，才真正履行完给付义务，由于不动产所有权的变动以登记为要件。尽管当事人未办理登记手续并不影响合同本身的效力，但是因为没有办理登记，房屋的所有权不能发生移转，买受人不能因出卖人的交付而获得房产的所有权。因此，办理登记是房屋买卖合同的主给付义务。可见，在本案中，由于甲公司的行为有可能导致乙公司的合同目的不能实现，根据《合同法》第66条的规定，其有权拒绝支付剩余款项。

【存在的问题】

本案的关键问题在于如何正确认识同时履行抗辩权，并将其与双方违约加以正确区分。
同时履行抗辩权是指双务合同的当事人一方在他方未为对待给付之前，有权拒绝自己的履行。行使同时履行抗辩权必须符合以下构成条件：

首先，须由同一双务合同互负债务，即双方当事人所负的债务是基于同一双务合同产生的。所谓双务合同是指当事人双方互负对待给付义务的合同，这种合同中一方当事人所享有的权利即为他方当事人所负的义务，如买卖合同、租赁合同等。如果双方的债务是基于两个或多个合同产生的，即使双方在事实上联系密切，也不能适用同时履行抗辩权。同时，双方当事人所负的债务之间必须具有对价或者牵连关系。对价或者牵连关系强调的是履行和对待履行之间的互为条件、互为牵连的关系，要求二者在义务的负担上大体相等，并不强调二者在经济上完全等价。对价问题原则上应当由当事人的意志来决定，同时法律要求双方在财产的交换上力求公平合理，履行和对待履行在价值上大致相当即可。

其次，须双方所负的债务都已届清偿期。

第三，须对方未履行其与己方债务有牵连关系的债务。

第四，须对方的对待履行是可以履行的，如果一方的履行已经不可能，则不能适用同时履行抗辩权，而应当考虑追究对方的违约责任。

同时履行抗辩权属于延期的抗辩权，没有消灭对方请求权的效力，仅使对方请求权延期。在对方当事人未为对待给付前，抗辩权人的债务即使已届清偿期而没有清偿，抗辩权人也不负迟延履行的违约责任。同时履行抗辩权依其性质应由当事人自己行使，法院或者仲裁机构不能依职权主动适用。

另外，值得注意的是，应当把同时履行抗辩权的行使与双方违约区别开来。双方违约是指合同双方当事人分别违背了自己的合同义务，应当各自承担自己的责任。其构成要件是：其一，双方当事人依据法律和合同规定，必须履行一定的义务，可见双方违约常常适用于双务合同。其二，当事人双方而不是一方违背了其负有的合同义务，也就是说，双方当事人都分别违反了合同规定。其三，双方当事人违背了合同规定的义务。如果仅仅是违反了法律义务而不是合同义务，可能构成过错，但不一定构成双方违约。例如一方违约后，另一方违反了法律规定的减轻损失的义务，造成了损失的扩大，从狭义的违约概念出发，这主要是一个过错问题，由此将导致对方的责任被减轻或免除，但不能认为是双方违约。当然，从广义的违约概念上考虑，也可以包括在违约之中。其四，双方均无正当理由，如果一方是行使同时履行抗辩权或不安抗辩权，则不能认为是双方违约。　如果当事人在对方违约后采取适当的自我补救措施，如对方拒不收货时，将标的物转卖等不能认定为违约，即使这种补救措施不够适当，也主要是一个过错的问题，不可作为双方违约对待。

【参考案例】

安徽省安庆市申申服装厂诉安徽省六安地区经济开发总公司一方未履行购销合同付款义务另一方拒付货款纠纷案，参见《人民法院案例选》总第12辑，第113－114页。

?????

?????
履行障碍法的实践问题与理论构造

——“中日韩合同法国际研讨会”撷英

张娜

履行障碍，是指合同履行过程中遇到的妨碍履行正常进行的事由，比如违约、不可抗力、情事变更、当事人死亡等。履行障碍法，是指调整因履行障碍所引发的相关问题的法律规范的总称，包括违约责任、履行抗辩权、瑕疵担保、风险负担、合同解除等制度。它在现代合同法上占据重要地位。

２００４年１２月２１日至２２日，清华大学法学院召开了“中日韩合同法国际研讨会”，三国的专家学者围绕着履行障碍与合同救济，展开了深入的探讨。

履行障碍法的现实意义与理论体系

王家福（中国社科院法学所终身教授）指出，合同不能够完全履行，或者合同不能够根本地履行，造成市场经济的很多困难。在制定统一的合同法的时候，起草者特别注意了合同履行的规定，特别注意了加重对违约责任的规定。合同法充分借鉴了大陆法系，如日本法、韩国法对于债权人代位权、债权人撤销权、抗辩权及解除权的规定。虽然我们取得了很大的进步，但合同履行仍然存在障碍。其实，合同履行障碍是个全球性的问题。

段匡（复旦大学法学院教授）介绍了现今在日本比较流行的履行障碍论，包含以下几个课题：（１）对债务不履行的再构成。学说认为，有必要把财产权移转型、提供服务型的委任合同结合起来考虑。并且要把付随义务、保护义务以及合同法上各种义务都放入债务不履行中综合考虑。（２）对债务不履行责任与瑕疵担保责任关系的再认识。现在的观点认为，瑕疵担保责任仅为债务不履行的特别规则，而国际商事合同通则等，都有将其统一的趋势。（３）有必要对债务不履行和危险负担加以根本性的整理。（４）违反保护义务、缔约过失、错误等合同缔结阶段的问题，同时履行抗辩、不安抗辩和先期违约以及违约责任边缘性的问题，也是履行障碍论中不可忽视的问题。

在上海，已出现好几起出租房屋室内空气危害人体健康的案件，此类案件涉及到的是瑕疵担保责任，还是履行不能？退还房租属于什么性质的救济（损害赔偿抑或恢复原状的不当得利的返还）？另外，不安抗辩和先期违约相互关系如何？履行请求权的界限在哪里？这些问题既有个论不足，也有未经统合没有一贯性。另外，中国合同法的继受来源复杂，为此，横向上将它归纳整合，倡导履行障碍论，意义深远。

韩雄吉（韩国东亚大学法科大学教授、法学部长）介绍了韩国的履行障碍与救济的现状，并介绍了韩国民法新近的修正动向。其中，债权编修订的主要内容包括：（１）追加了恢复原状的请求作为损害赔偿方法。韩国最近出现的一些案例表明，与其以金钱方式一次性赔偿，不如承认恢复原状或定期金赔偿更为妥当。故修订案规定，因债务不履行引起的损害赔偿基本上以金钱赔偿为原则，如有适当理由时可请求恢复原状；因身体及健康的侵害引起的损害情形，法院可令以定期金方式赔偿。（２）完善保证制度。在韩国，由于轻率保证使保证人蒙受始料不及的损害案例屡有发生，完善它的必要性也凸显出来。具体表现为：第一，保证在形式上必须有保证人的签名盖章或有署名的书面形式表示方有效力；第二，债权人事先知道债务人已有三个月以上未履行义务或履行期届至不可能履行义务的，应立即通知保证人，因上述义务的违反使保证人蒙受损失的，在其范围内可以免除责任。（３）新设关于最高额抵押的规定。（４）就解除合同的理由设统一规定。（５）新设因情事变更引起的合同解除或终止权。（６）承认发包人对于已完成建筑物的合同解除权。因重大瑕疵使物理上无法达到建筑物的使用目的时，放置建筑物反而会诱发社会经济问题，修正案此时允许解除合同。（７）将旅行合同、中介合同规定为民法上的典型合同。

双务合同履行中的抗辩权

王利明（中国人民大学法学院教授、院长）指出，合同法规定的同时履行抗辩、后履行抗辩以及不安抗辩，其特点在于：（１）三种抗辩权制度构成了履行抗辩权的体系，解决了我国长期以来存在的判断是否构成双方违约的难题，因为正当地行使抗辩权不构成违约。对于合同法第六十七条是否要规定后履行抗辩权，他主张应该把它包括在同时履行抗辩权中。尤其是合同法在同时履行抗辩权中规定了“相应”性的标准，根据“相应”性的要求，在一方违约之后，另一方有权拒绝相应的履行请求，这样实际上已经区分了履行的先后顺序，所以它完全可以适用于第六十七条规定的情况。（２）同时履行抗辩权和后履行抗辩权，通过“相应”性标准的确定，解决了正当履行的判断标准。所谓“相应”，就是要求履行和对待履行之间义务的内容或者相互履行的金钱价值应该大体相当。（３）履行抗辩制度沟通了不安抗辩权与违约责任制度，创设了预期违约制度，将大陆法的不安抗辩权和英美法的预期违约进行了巧妙的结合。（４）抗辩权制度的特点还表现在抗辩权和解除制度的衔接。抗辩和解除本属两个不同的范畴，大陆法系的不安抗辩只是暂时使履行中止，不能解除合同；但是在引入预期违约制度后，使不安抗辩权和违约解除制度有效地结合在了一起，即先行使不安抗辩，再确定是否违约，然后再确定是否解除合同。

韩世远（清华大学法学院副教授）指出，合同法第六十六条虽规定了同时履行抗辩权，实务中适用该条规定进行裁判的案例还是比较少见。当事人更习惯于一方起诉，另一方提起反诉。但这样做的弊端很明显，由于是两个“诉”，成本比较高。这种现状的主要原因之一，是由于我国目前欠缺“同时履行的判决”这种判决形式。实务中，被告主张同时履行抗辩权如果成立，法院便会驳回原告的诉讼请求，作出原告败诉的判决。而采取同时履行的判决，一方面承认原告的请求权，同时原告如欲申请强制执行，须先消灭对方的同时履行抗辩权，须自己先提交履行。这样的判决，就相当于附有条件的判决，且通常认为它是原告胜诉的判决，相应地诉讼费由被告负担。这种判决形式如果在我国有了的话，就会有效地增进同时履行抗辩权的应用。这种判决形式在德国民法典第３２２条有专门的规定，日本、韩国及我国台湾地区也有同时履行的判决。至于可否让双方负担诉讼费，这一问题需要讨论。

在运用同时履行抗辩权时，应该将它与诚信原则结合起来，否则，对方稍有一点履行不符合约定，即发生同时履行抗辩权，很有可能人为地带来不必要的履行障碍。这样，同时履行抗辩权就不是在化解履行障碍，反而带来消极影响。

合同解除

崔建远（清华大学法学院教授）认为，合同法第九十五条关于当事人约定除斥期间的规定，其文义涵盖过宽，应作目的性限缩，若当事人约定的除斥期间过长，则过长的部分不具有法律效力。至于何者为过长，则由主审法官基于公平正义的理念，根据个案情形，自由裁量。关于除斥期间的起算，应区分情形：（１）法律已规定解除权的除斥期间及其起算点的，当然据此确定起算点。当事人约定了解除权的除斥期间及其起算点的，应当依其约定；若未约定起算点的，首先通过催告加以确定。催告中指明起算点的，依其约定；未明确的，根据合同法第九十五条第二款及《最高人民法院关于审理商品房买卖合同纠纷案件适用法律若干问题的解释》第十五条规定的精神，宜把催告通知到达的次日确定为除斥期间的第一天。（２）日本民法典规定，如果在特定期间内未收到解除通知，解除权即告消灭。中国合同法尚无此类规定，日本民法的规定值得借鉴。另外，如由于他人的原因，例如因邮电局的过失致解除通知未到达对方当事人，解除权可否不消灭？对此，可比照合同法第二十九条，确立如下规则：对方当事人若已经及时通知了解除权人，他因在除斥期间内未收到解除通知而不承认解除效力的发生，则合同继续有效，解除权因除斥期间届满而归于消灭；否则，视为解除的通知到达了对方当事人，发生解除的效力。（３）在既无法律规定和当事人约定，又无催告的情况下，如何确定起算点？在违约的情况下，适用或者类推适用《最高人民法院关于审理商品房买卖合同纠纷案件适用法律若干问题的解释》第十五条第二款的规定，解除权的除斥期间从解除权发生之日起算。

关于解除权的行使，从合同法第九十六条第一款的规定看，并无禁止解除权人请求法院或仲裁机构确认解除合同的效力之意。对解除合同持有异议，应在一定期限内提出，不宜漫无限制，且该期限不宜长。具体的时间长度，在解释论的层面，可由主审法官基于公平正义的理念，根据个案情形，自由裁量。另外，当事人请求法院或仲裁机构确认解除合同的效力，应有时间限制。

冈孝（日本学习院大学教授）提出，已被受领的物在买受人处灭失，买受人解除合同时，买受人是否要承担恢复原状的义务，即返还和标的物在灭失时的价值相当的金额？如买卖旧车，买回后发现是一辆出过事故的车，可此时车已在买受人处因不可抗力灭失了。他对日中合同法进行了比较。在日本法里，不论是瑕疵担保解除还是普通的债务不履行解除，合同一经解除，当事人之间就发生原状恢复义务。此外，买受人还能请求损害赔偿。从结论上来看，买受人以瑕疵为理由行使解除权，因受领物已灭失，所以他不用承担任何原状恢复义务，却可要求出卖人恢复原状，返还支付的价款并支付其使用利益即利息。

中国合同法第九十七条规定了解除的法律后果，结合与买卖有关的第一百四十八条，加上在中国法上，即使履行不能，债务也不消灭。这样，第一百四十八条所规定的出卖人承担风险的意思就不是日本法上的风险承担的意思，而是出卖人不能对买受人行使原状恢复请求权的意思。果如此，他认为中国合同法第一百四十八条和日本民法第５４８条在解释论上的结论是一致的。

渡边达德（日本中央大学教授）具体分析了租赁（特别是以居住为目的的不动产租赁）、承揽、委托的解除问题。特别介绍了关于不动产租赁合同，在日本判例实践上起重要作用的“信赖关系理论”。依该法理，在不动产租赁合同中，当事人之间的信赖关系遭到破坏时，可不经催告解除合同，同时，即使对方当事人有不履行行为，只要它还没达到破坏当事人之间的信赖关系的程度，就不允许解除。日本判例认为，只要承租人有某种债务不履行（如不支付租金、违反使用方法、违反特别约定等），且“信赖关系”因此受到破坏，它就会成为解除的理由。

根据中国合同法中有关租赁的规定，出租人可以以违反用法、擅自转租、不支付租金为理由解除合同。不管是哪种情况，日本的判例对于不动产租赁都形成了信赖关系理论，一般来讲，它使不动产承租人受到保护。恐怕这些规定的解释和适用，会根据当时的住宅情况、经济形势以及该案件当事人之间的具体情况等，发生很大的变化。在中国合同法的运用过程中，是否会产生相当于信赖关系理论的见解，并扎下根来，值得关注。

瑕疵担保

下森定（日本法政大学名誉教授、前校长）指出，现行日本民法以合同成立时为标准，将给付障碍法的结构体系大体分为嗣后给付障碍和自始给付障碍两种，多元化地构筑了各种保护制度。

日本民法典制定后，合同责任的扩张现象有两个基本方向，即内部扩张和对外扩张。前者是以本来的给付债务、与的债务为中心构筑起来的，以迟延、不能为内容的债务不履行责任的传统性二元化结构向包括不完全履行的三元化结构展开的扩张现象；后者是与附随性注意义务、保护义务相关的积极侵害债权论及缔约上的过失责任理论的出现及其新展开。它们本来是属于侵权行为责任领域的问题，故可称之为合同责任向侵权行为责任领域的对外扩张现象。其中，作为时间上的扩张，可以举出缔约上过失理论和后合同义务理论。作为合同责任的质的扩张，积极侵害债权、保护义务及其他附随义务论得到了展开。

现在，有必要重新评价属于传统民事责任体系的债务不履行责任和侵权责任的二元结构，特别是重新构造债务不履行责任或合同责任体系。进一步来讲，如何按照现代社会的要求，重新构造包括瑕疵担保责任、风险承担、受领迟延等在内的整个给付障碍的法体系，也就是说债权法的修改就将成为当代的一个重要课题。德国新法就是一个先驱性的尝试。

王洪亮（清华大学法学院讲师）介绍了德国新债法上的瑕疵担保责任问题，同时提出，中国的瑕疵担保责任有它独立的利益平衡，但没有解决的是，瑕疵担保责任是否作为特别规定优先适用，以保护买卖中双方的利益平衡关系不被破坏。在先合同义务阶段，合同法第四十二条规定缔约上过失，但未解决全部的问题，主张用瑕疵担保责任弥补前合同阶段缔约上过失的缺漏。

来源：中国法院网

?????????????? (www.chinalawedu.com)

?????????????? (www.chinalawedu.com)
论保险合同中的同时履行抗辩权
摘要：保险合同的法律性质是双务合同。既然如此，且又符合同时履行抗辩权的其它构成要件，投保人交纳保险费的义务，与保险人承担保险责任的义务，即承诺危险负担转移的义务，应当同时履行。肯定保险合同中的同时履行抗辩权，符合保险制度之原旨。

关键词：保险合同； 保险费； 同时履行抗辩权； 保险责任

保险合同为债法上合同的一种，因当事人的意思互相表示一致而成立，在债法上属特种之债。[1]（P28）在这种特种之债中，投保人和保险人基于所签订的保险合同各负其履行义务，一方负担的义务是以他方负担的义务为前提。只有在双方同时履行了自己的义务以后，才能达到当事人订约的目的（其性质通说认为属于双务合同）。然而，对于保险合同的这种同时履行规则，法学界和保险界却观点各异，未能达到共识，以致在保险实务中，当事人和有关部门都感到很棘手。笔者在这里从一个既成案例入手，根据同时履行抗辩权理论和保险合同的内在规律性，对保险合同中的同时履行抗辩权理论作简要探讨，以求教于同仁。

一、一则案例引发的争议

XXXX年5月20日，某乡6549农户向当地保险公司投保家庭财产保险，商定每户交保险费7.5元，保额为2500元。在“特别约定”栏中约定“保险费分两次交付，同年11月底一一交清”。随后保险公司委托某乡代收保险费，并将《家庭财产保险单（正本）》（代保险费收据）交至乡政府。7月20日前，保险人多次催交保险费，乡负责人承诺在农户早稻上市后（8月份）将收集并交付部分保险费，棉花上市（11月份）后，保险费全部付清。但是，同年7 月24 日深夜，盛夏的洪水吞没了该乡，到9月中旬才退出，使该乡遭受了巨大的经济损失。事后，乡农户凭保险单向保险公司提出索赔380万元。保险公司在研究理赔时，认为该乡未交付保险费，保险合同未生效，向该乡政府发出了《拒赔通知书》。乡灾民则认为与保险公司签订的保险合同有效，保险公司应履行其义务，于10 月5日向法院起诉，要求保险公司立即理赔。

对于本案，法院在审理时，认为被告保险人向原告代理人乡政府签发了保险单，原被告之间的保险合同即告成立，保险合同所约定的双方的权利义务应受法律保护。依据《合同法》第8条的规定：“依法成立的合同，对当事人具有法律约束力。当事人应按照约定履行自己的义务，不得擅自变更或解除合同。”法院认为保险合同成立后，保险法律关系确立，承担保险责任和交纳保险费即分别为保险人和投保人的义务，双方应各自履行。因此，本案中原告是否交纳保险费，不是本案被告按约定期限承担保险责任的前提条件，除非在保险单上特别约定“保险单自交费之日起生效”。所以，在本案中，即使投保人分文未交，保险人也须承担保险责任。据此，同年12月8日，本案双方当事人在法院的调解下结案，被告保险公司一次给付原告赔款及各种开支费用共计人民币380万元，原告向被告交纳保险费及利息3.5万元。[2]（P39）

从民法学的角度来看，涉及到合同的同时履行抗辩权的适用。保险合同作为双务合同，投保人交付保险费和保险人承担保险责任是它们的各自义务，双方应当同时履行，一方在对方未履行之前有权拒绝其履行的请求。然而，法院的判决令人费解。

二、同时履行抗辩权的功能和构成要件

同时履行抗辩权，亦称履行合同的抗辩权，是指双务合同的当事人一方在他方未为对待给付前，有权拒绝自己的履行。[3]（P330）也就是我国《合同法》第 66条所规定的：“当事人互负债务，没有先后履行顺序的，应当同时履行，一方在对方未履行之前有权拒绝其履行的请求。一方在对方履行债务不符合约定时，有权拒绝其相应的履行请求。”同时履行抗辩权是为确保债务的履行而设，是以公平之理念，认为不应有之求他人履行义务而不履行自己义务而设。[4] （P126）“当事人双方只须同时Zug um Zug 履行，而无须授予相对人以信用，法律不期待任一当事人先为给付，任何先为给付时，系以自己危险而作为。” [5]（P542） 因而，同时履行抗辩权具有“担保”其债权的实现的功能。

当事人行使同时履行抗辩权，须具备一定的要件。根据我国《合同法》第66条的规定，同时履行抗辩权的构成要件有三：

第一，须由同一合同互负债务。这是同时履行抗辩权得以行使的前提条件，它包含两层意思。其一，同时履行抗辩权指双方债务系同一合同而发生，“倘双方的债务，非同一之双务契约而发生，纵令双方债务在事实上有密切之关系——不能发生同时履行之抗辩。”[6]其二，双方完全互负债务。若双方之债务虽因同一之双务契约而发生，然其一方之给付与他方之给付，并非立于互为对待给付之关系者，不能发生同时履行之抗辩。也就是说，同时履行抗辩权的发生仅限于双方完全负担债务的合同，即完全双务合同，不包括不完全双务合同。

在这里很有必要区分完全双务合同和不完全双务合同。我国大陆民法学者对这两类合同很少进行讨论。其实对它们进行实益区分，对同时履行抗辩权的理解和运用大有裨益。根据我国台湾学者的研究，双方相互负担债务的合同可以分为两类，一类是完全双务合同，一类是不完全双务合同。完全双务合同是指双方当事人互负居于给付与对待给付的合同，易言之，即一方之所以负给付义务乃在于取得对待给付。不完全双务合同，即双方虽各负有债务，但其债务并不居于给付与对待给付关系。[7]（P145）即一方之给付义务与取得对方对待给付，处于不确定状态和具有不对等性。二者具有一定的联系和区别，联系在于，两类合同为当事人相互间同时或先后互为债务人和债权人，其区别在于义务与权利成为法律行为之动机关系。在不完全双务合同中相互权利义务关系，系债之关系过程中所生结果现象。完全双务合同则是产生相互债的合同，相互之间权利义务关系，依当事人的意思自始至终联系较为紧密，其所以为给付义务的承诺，乃在于相对人亦有对待给付义务。因此，对于一项义务之不履行或不良履行在法律上必然对其对待义务有所影响。[8] （P29）这便是同时履行抗辩权的立法意义。

第二，须双方当事人没有先后履行顺序。这是同时履行抗辩权得以行使的实质要件。当事人只有在无法定或约定的先行给付义务时，才能行使同时履行抗辩权。这是因为，同时履行抗辩权的援用，系给付与对待给付的交换，即对价的实现，故双方债务必须处于可请求履行的状态，但是，若根据法律规定或当事人的约定，一方有先为给付义务者，无同时履行抗辩权的适用。[9]（P651）在实务中，一方当事人是否有先为给付出义务，可以根据合同的性质交易习惯以及诚实信用原则或法律的有关规定得知。如在分期付款买卖合同中，依其性质，买方有先行给付的义务，在此情形下，买方不能以卖方未为对待给付为由，行使同时履行抗辩权而不履行自己的先行付款的义务。

第三，须对待给付已届期且他方当事人未为履行。这是同时履行抗辩权得以行使的基础要件。同时履行抗辩权的提出，在于促使双方的债务同时交换履行，如对待给付没有届期或虽然已经届期但是当事人同意延期履行义务，或者他方已经给付或已经提出给付出请求，抗辩原因则消灭。

三、保险合同中是否适用同时履行抗辩权

关于保险合同中是否适用同时履行抗辩权，目前学术界存在三种不同的学说：肯定说，否定说和中性说。肯定说认为，保险合同作为双务合同存在两个方向相反的义务，即投保人向保险人交纳保险费和保险人对投保人（包括被保险人）承担保险责任的义务，该两项义务是互为对价，存在着同时履行的关联性。只要双方当事人在保险合同中没有相反的约定，双方的义务是可以同时履行的。[10]（P218）否定说者认为，由于保险合同的本性，投保人在履行义务时总是在先，保险人承担的保险责任何时开始履行则完全取决于保险事故或事件是否发生，故其义务履行必然在后。[11]（P52）因此，保险合同这种“特种合同”和一般合同有不同之处，民法上的同时履行抗辩权和保险法的有关保险费交付的规定有差异。保险合同的投保人有先支付保险费的义务，不得依民法上的规定主张同时履行抗辩权。 [12]（P10）如果一定要象一般的双务合同一样，双方当事人均须同时履行各自的义务，那么保险合同是不可能存在的。[13]（P109）中性说者认为，保险合同系特殊形态之双务契约，一方所负的为无条件之给付义务，与之相对的却是他方附条件的给付义务，双方的关系尽管属双务关系，各人负有义务，但在附条件成就前，不能适用同时履行抗辩权。[14]（P524）

在上述三种学说中，笔者赞成肯定说，即认为保险合同可以适用同时履行抗辩权。所谓保险合同中的同时履行抗辩权，是指保险合同双方当事人在对方未为对待给付前，有权拒绝自己的履行。理由如下：

首先，保险合同是双方当事人互负对待给付的完全双务合同。在保险合同中，投保人付出保险费之约定义务，与保险人同意承受标的物“危险负担转移”，为保险合同当事人互为“对待给付”。在这种对待给付中，保险人的义务有二个：一是承受危险负担之转移，二是为保险金之给付。[15]（P52）其中，前者是保险人所承担的第一性义务，后者是保险人所承担的第二性义务。第一性义务能否得到履行，直接影响第二性义务的实现。因为，在保险合同中，对投保人来说，投保的目的在于交付保险费，转移附随于权利之“危险负担”（危险对权利造成之损害）。对保险人来说，保险费之取得，是积极财产的增加，“危险负担之转移”是“潜在性”消极财产之增加。只有当保险事故发生于保险标的造成损害时，“潜在性”消极财产，才转化为“具体性”消极财产，即负给付保险金义务。在这里，也只有两项“增加的财产”才是“对待给付”的对象，即在一个有效成立的保险合同中，“保险费之交付”，与 “危险负担转移”而非“保险金给付”为保险合同当事人的“对待给付”。除在合同中另有规定或约定外，二者应当同时履行。也就是说，投保人在交付保险费前，保险人不承担保险责任。如韩国商法第656 条明确规定：“当事人之间若另无约定，保险人的责任应自收到第一次保险费的支付时开始”。

其次，依保险合同的性质，上述的“对待给付”，只能存在于投保人的保险费的现实交付和保险人承受“危险负担转移”的允诺中。因为“允诺本身应被认为是彼此的对价”，在英国，包含一个允诺的对价被认为是“待履行的合同”，[16]（P125）也就是我们通常所说的双务合同）。例如，在个人住房保险合同中，一个保险公司允诺，房屋在一定的年限内被毁坏，它将赔偿该房屋的价值。如果被保险人没有支付保险费，保险公司不需要赔偿。原因是，保险公司的允诺在作出时是有价值的，是以被保险人支付保险费为对价的。所以，笔者认为，保险合同的双务性质是一种允诺的对价给付，是被保险人或投保人给予保险人保险费，保险人允诺承受“危险负担转移”后，对保险标的损害负“潜在性”赔偿责任。保险人的义务“并不是保险人所承担的赔偿责任，而仅是对履行赔偿责任的一项承诺，无论损失发生与否，保险人承担规定的风险就是对其承诺的履行。”[17] （P13）

再次，在保险合同中，双方当事人的履行顺序没有先后。否定说之所以认为保险合同不能适用同时履行抗辩权，是因为它们认为保险合同的双方当事人的义务的履行存在先后之别，其实不然。如前所述，保险合同的双务性质是指，保险合同双方当事人都承担一定的义务，投保人的主要义务是支付保险费，保险人的主要义务是承担危险负担转移的承诺，在保险事故发生后支付保险金。二者是一种有价值的对价关系，因保险合同的达成而产生。如果双方当事人对此没有特别约定，它们是同时产生的。但是，与一般的双务合同不同，在保险合同中，投保人的交费义务总是具有现实性和履行的必然性，而保险人履行义务因其是一种承诺而对其所承担的保险合同所规定的义务（承担危险负担转移和赔偿或支付保险金）总是不具有显现性，所以，从表面上看，保险合同具有不完全双务合同的特征，保险合同双方当事人承担义务在性质上不具有严格意义上的对等性和时间上的不同时性。但这实际上正好说明保险合同的同时履行抗辩权是以保险人的第一性义务为标准的，而不是第二性义务能否得到实际履行为标准。因为保险合同的本质是“权利”和“危险负担”之分离。从投保人而言，投保之目的并非是为了获取保险金，而是以保险费之给付，转移其附随于“权利”之“危险负担”，由保险人承受。除双方另有约定外，投保人交付保险费与保险人同意承受标的物“危险负担转移”的义务在时间上并没有先后之别而且是同时进行的。这就是上述否定学说和中性学说的认识上的重要误区，它们的观点不符合保险合同的内在规律性，因而也是笔者不敢苟同的。

四、结论与建议

台湾学者郑玉波曾经说过：“投保人交付保险费与保险人承担保险责任是‘互为对价’关系”[18]（P7）投保人有危险忧郁，愿意付出少许代价，即愿意付出一定保险费买到一个安全，而保险人则基于保险经营企业的性质，收受保险费，愿意作出承受“危险负担转移”的允诺。当发生允诺中的保险责任时，给予相应的补偿费，从而使得投保人与保险人对价关系得以维持。但是，若当事人之间另无约定，保险人的承受危险负担转移的责任应自收到投保人的保险费时开始。否则，投保人没有支付保险费，保险人没有允诺承担危险负担转移，也就不需要进行赔偿。在本案中，原告和法院因没有认识到这一点，以至于法院作出了不令人满意的判决。本文之作，系从民法上的同时履行抗辩权观念论述了保险合同中的同时履行抗辩规则，也因此认为，我国保险法在投保人交付保险费与保险人承担保险责任的对价关系上应当有新的规定。投保人交付保险费的义务与保险人承担保险责任的义务应当是同时履行的，只有这样，才符合保险制度之原旨。

[参考文献]
[1]桂裕。保险法论（M）。台湾：三民书局，1994.
[2]陆燕芬。交纳保险费是保险合同生效的前提（J）。保险研究，2000（9）。
[3]王利明 崔建远。合同法新论。总则（M）。北京：中国政法大学出版社，2000.
[4]苏俊雄。合同法原理及适用（M）。台湾：中华书局，1969.
[5][8][14]黄立。民法债篇总论（M）。北京：中国政法大学出版社，2002.
[6]台湾1970年台上字第二阶段50号判例。
[7]王泽鉴。民法债篇（M）。北京：中国政法大学出版社，2002.
[9]江平。民法学（M）。北京：中国政法大学出版社，2000.
[10]覃有土。保险法概论[M].北京：北京大学出版社，2001.
[11]庄咏文。保险法教程[M].北京：法律出版社，1996.
[12]周玉华。保险合同法总论[M].北京：法律出版社，2000.
[13]李玉泉。保险法[M]. 北京：法律出版社，1997.
[15]尹章华。保险契约法专论[M].台湾：文笙书局股份有限公司，1980.
[16]赵旭东。合同法导论[M].北京：法律出版社，2002.
[17]陈欣。保险法[M].北京：北京大学出版社，2000.
[18]郑玉波。保险法[M].台湾：三民书局，1986.

尹海文 肖艳晖

??????

??????
上海黄金交易所简介

概述

上海黄金交易所是经国务院批准，由中国人民银行组建，在国家工商行政管理局登记注册的, 不以营利为目的，实行自律性管理的法人。遵循公开、公平、公正和诚实信用的原则组织黄金、白银、铂等贵金属交易。

基本职能

（一）提供黄金、白银、铂等贵金属交易的场所、设施及相关服务；

（二）制定并实施黄金交易所的业务规则，规范交易行为；

（三）组织、监督黄金、白银、铂等贵金属交易、清算、交割和配送；

（四）设计交易合同、保证交易合同的履行；

（五）制定并实施风险管理制度，控制市场风险；

（六）生成合理价格，发布市场信息；

（七）监管会员交易业务，查处会员违反交易所有关规定的行为；

（八）监管指定仓库的黄金、白银、铂等贵金属业务；

（九）中国人民银行规定的其他职能。

基本概况

一、业务介绍

（一）组织形式: 黄金交易所实行会员制组织形式，会员由在中华人民共和国境内注册登记，从事黄金业务的金融机构、从事黄金、白银、铂等贵金属及其制品的生产、冶炼、加工、批发、进出口贸易的企业法人，并具有良好资信的单位组成。现有会员128家，分散在全国26个省、市、自治区；交易所会员依其业务范围分为金融类会员、综合类会员和自营会员。金融类会员可进行自营和代理业务及批准的其它业务，综合类会员可进行自营和代理业务，自营会员可进行自营业务。

目前会员中金融类16家、综合类100家、自营类12家；据初步统计，会员单位中年产金量约占全国的75%；用金量占全国的80%；冶炼能力占全国的90%。

（二） 交易方式: 标准黄金、铂金交易通过交易所的集中竞价方式进行，实行价格优先、时间优先撮合成交。非标准品种通过询价等方式进行，实行自主报价、协商成交。会员可自行选择通过现场或远程方式进行交易。

（三）交易品种和价格：交易所主要实行标准化撮合交易方式。目前，交易的商品有黄金、白银、铂，交易标的必须符合交易所规定的标准。黄金有Au99.95、Au99.99和Au50g三个现货实盘交易品种，和Au(T+5)与延期交收两个现货保证金交易品种；铂金有Pt99.95现货实盘交易品种，和Pt(T+5) 现货保证金交易品种；白银准备挂牌延期交收合约。

（四）资金清算：中国银行、中国农业银行、中国工商银行和中国建设银行作为交易所指定的清算银行，实行集中、直接、净额的资金清算原则。

（五）储运交割：交易所实物交割实行“一户一码制”的交割原则，在全国35个城市设立47家指定仓库，金锭和金条由交易所统一调运配送。

（六）认定质验：交易所对于可提供标准金锭、金条企业的资格进行认定。并指定权威质检机构对交易产品质量进行监督，对质量纠纷进行检测和仲裁。

（七）税收：经财政部、国家税务总局批准，产金企业通过交易所销售标准黄金、铂金，免征增值税；用金企业通过交易所购买黄金、铂金，发生实物交割的，由税收机关按实际成交价格代开增值税专用发票。

（八）商业银行的作用：按照国际惯例和市场原则在供求发生变化的情况下进行调剂，参与市场交易、提供黄金抵押、租赁、代理和个人黄金买卖业务等金融服务，从而进一步活跃交易、促进流通。

（九）系统服务：上海黄金交易所将积极维护和保障会员在交易中的合法权益，以会员为本，为会员的发展提供全方位服务。包括

1.系统平台：上海黄金交易所的交易系统设计合理、技术先进、功能齐全，运行安全可靠、快捷，该系统可以满足未来的会员以及代理客户的黄金、白银、铂等贵金属交易需要。

2.质量保证：交易所认定的可提供标准金锭企业对其提供产品的质量终身负责。

3.资金安全：通过指定清算银行的全国网点进行资金清算，由交易所统一管理会员保证资金账户，确保资金的安全、方便、快捷。

4.信息共享：可实时接收和查询黄金交易所的行情，国内外黄金等贵金属的交易行情、评论和相关报道。

　　　　　　发布时间:2004-11-29 10:48:00

?????????????

?????????????
中华人民共和国金银管理条例


颁布日期：19830615 　实施日期：19830615 　失效日期：国发[1983]95号 　颁布单位：国务院

第一章　总　则
第二章　对金银收购的管理
第三章　对金银配售的管理
第四章　对经营单位和个体银匠的管理
第五章　对金银进出国境的管理
第六章　奖励与惩罚
第七章　附　则

第一章　总　则
　　第一条　为加强对金银的管理，保证国家经济建设对金银的需要，取缔金银走私和投机倒把活动，特制定本条例。
　　第二条　本条例所称金银，包括：
　　（一）矿藏生产金银和冶炼副产金银；
　　（二）金银条、块、锭、粉；
　　（三）金银铸币；
　　（四）金银制品和金基、银基合金制品；
　　（五）化工产品中含的金银；
　　（六）金银边角余料及废渣、废液、废料中含的金银。
　　铂（即白金），按照国家有关规定管理。
　　属于金银质地的文物，按照《中华人民共和国文物法》的规定管理。
　　第三条　国家对金银实行统一管理、统购统配的政策。
　　中华人民共和国境内的机关、部队、团体、学校，国营企业、事业单位，城乡集体经济组织（以下统称境内机构）的一切金银的收入和支出，都纳入国家金银收支计划。
　　第四条　国家管理金银的主管机关为中国人民银行。
　　中国人民银行负责管理国家金银储备；负责金银的收购与配售；会同国家物价主管机关制定和管理金银收购与配售价格；会同国家有关主管机关审批经营（包括加工、销售）金银制品、含金银化工产品以及从含金银的废渣、废液、废料中回收金银的单位（以下统称经营单位），管理和检查金银市场；监督本条例的实施。
　　第五条　境内机构所持的金银，除经中国人民银行许可留用的原材料、设备、器皿、纪念品外，必须全部交售给中国人民银行，不得自行处理、占有。
　　第六条　国家保护个人持有合法所得的金银。
　　第七条　在中华人民共和国境内，一切单位和个人不得计价使用金银，禁止私相买卖和借贷抵押金银。
第二章　对金银收购的管理
　　第八条　金银的收购，统一由中国人民银行办理。除经中国人民银行许可、委托的以外，任何单位和个人不得收购金银。
　　第九条　从事金银生产（包括矿藏生产和冶炼副产）的厂矿企业、农村社队、部队和个人所采炼的金银，必须全部交售给中国人民银行，不得自行销售、交换和留用。
　　前款所列生产单位，对生产过程中的金银成品和半成品，必须按照有关规定加强管理，不得私自销售和处理。
　　第十条　国家鼓励经营单位和使用金银的单位，从伴生金银的矿种和含金银的废渣、废液、废料中回收金银。
　　前款所列单位必须将回收的金银交售给中国人民银行，不得自行销售、交换和留用。但是，经中国人民银行许可，使用金银的单位将回收的金银重新利用的除外。
　　第十一条　境内机构从国外进口的金银和矿产品中采炼的副产金银，除经中国人民银行允许留用的或者按照规定用于进料加工复出口的金银以外，一律交售给中国人民银行，不得自行销售、交换和留用。
　　第十二条　个人出售金银，必须卖给中国人民银行。
　　第十三条　一切出土无主金银，均为国家所有，任何单位和个人不得熔化、销毁或占有。
　　单位和个人发现的出土无主金银，经当地文化行政管理部门鉴定，除有历史文物价值的按照《中华人民共和国文物法》的规定办理外，必须交给中国人民银行收兑，价款上缴国库。
　　第十四条　公安、司法、海关、工商行政管理、税务等国家机关依法没收的金银，一律交售给中国人民银行，不得自行处理或者以其他实物顶替。没收的金银价款按照有关规定上缴国库。
第三章　对金银配售的管理
　　第十五条　凡需用金银的单位，必须按照规定程序向中国人民银行提出申请使用金银的计划，由中国人民银行审批、供应。
　　中国人民银行应当按照批准的计划供应，不得随意减售或拖延。
　　第十六条　中华人民共和国境内的外资企业、中外合资企业以及外商，订购金银制品或者加工其他含金银产品，要求在国内供应金银者，必须按照规定程序提出申请，由中国人民银行审批予以供应。
　　第十七条　使用金银的单位，必须建立使用制度，严格做到专项使用、结余交回。未经中国人民银行许可，不得把金银原料（包括半成品）转让或者移作他用。
　　第十八条　在本条例规定范围内，中国人民银行有权对使用金银的单位进行监督和检查。使用金银的单位应当向中国人民银行据实提供有关使用金银的情况和资料。
第四章　对经营单位和个体银匠的管理
　　第十九条　申请经营（包括加工、销售）金银制品、含金银化工产品以及从含金银的废渣、废液、废料中回收金银的单位，必须按照国家有关规定和审批程序，经中国人民银行和有关主管机关审查批准，在工商行政管理机关登记发给营业执照后，始得营业。
　　第二十条　经营单位必须按照批准的金银业务范围从事经营，不得擅自改变经营范围，不得在经营中克扣、挪用和套购金银。
　　第二十一条　金银质地纪念币的铸造、发行由中国人民银行办理，其他任何单位不得铸造、仿造和发行。
　　金银质地纪念章（牌）的出口经营，由中国人民银行和中华人民共和国对外经济贸易部分别办理。
　　第二十二条　委托、寄售商店，不得收购或者寄售金银制品、金银器材。珠宝商店可以收购供出口销售的带有金银镶嵌的珠宝饰品，但是不得收购、销售金银制品和金银器材。金银制品由中国人民银行收购并负责供应外贸出口。
　　第二十三条　边疆少数民族地区和沿海侨眷比较集中地区的个体银匠，经县或者县级以上中国人民银行以及工商行政管理机关批准，可以从事代客加工和修理金银制品的业务，但不得收购和销售金银制品。
　　第二十四条　国家允许个人邮寄金银饰品，具体管理办法由中国人民银行会同中华人民共和国邮电部制定。
第五章　对金银进出国境的管理
　　第二十五条　携带金银进入中华人民共和国国境，数量不受限制，但是必须向入境地中华人民共和国海关申报登记。
　　第二十六条　携带或者复带金银出境，中华人民共和国海关凭中国人民银行出具的证明或者原入境时的申报单登记数量查验放行；不能提供证明的或者超过原入境时申报登记数量的，不许出境。
　　第二十七条　携带在中华人民共和国境内供应旅游者购买的金银饰品（包括镶嵌饰品、工艺品、器皿等）出境，中华人民共和国海关凭国内经营金银制品的单位开具的特种发货票查验放行。无凭据的，不许出境。
　　第二十八条　在中华人民共和国境内的中国人、外国侨民和无国籍人出境定居，每人携带金银的限额为：黄金饰品１市两（３１．２５克），白银饰品１０市两（３１２．５０克），银质器皿２０市两（６２５克）。经中华人民共和国海关查验符合规定限额的放行。
　　第二十九条　中华人民共和国境内的外资企业、中外合资企业，从国外进口金银作产品原料的，其数量不限；出口含金银量较高的产品，须经中国人民银行核准后放行。未经核准或者超过核准出口数量的，不许出境。
第六章　奖励与惩罚
　　第三十条　有下列事迹的单位或者个人，国家给予表彰或者适当的物质奖励：
　　（一）认真执行国家金银政策法令，在金银回收或者管理工作中做出显著成绩的；
　　（二）为保护国家金银与走私、投机倒把等违法犯罪行为坚决斗争，事迹突出的；
　　（三）发现出土无主金银及时上报或者上交，对国家有贡献的；
　　（四）将个人收藏的金银捐献给国家的。
　　第三十一条　违反本条例的下列行为，根据情节轻重，分别由中国人民银行、工商行政管理机关和海关按照各自的职责权限给予以下处罚：
　　（一）违反本条例第八、九、十、十一条规定，擅自收购、销售、交换和留用金银的，由中国人民银行或者工商行政管理机关予以强制收购或者贬值收购。情节严重的，工商行政管理机关可并处以罚款，或者单处以没收。
　　违反本条例第八、九、十、十一条规定的，工商行政管理机关可另处以吊销营业执照。
　　（二）违反本条例第十三条规定，私自熔化、销毁、占有出土无主金银的，由中国人民银行追回实物或者由工商行政管理机关处以罚款。
　　（三）违反本条例第十七条规定擅自改变使用用途或者转让金银原材料的，由中国人民银行予以警告，或者追回已配售的金银。情节严重的，处以罚款直至停止供应。
　　（四）违反本条例第十九、二十、二十一、二十二、二十三条规定，未经批准私自经营的，或者擅自改变经营范围的，或者套购、挪用、克扣金银的，由工商行政管理机关处以罚款或者没收。情节严重的，可并处以吊销营业执照、责令停业。
　　（五）违反本条例第七条规定，将金银计价使用、私相买卖、借贷抵押的，由中国人民银行或者工商行政管理机关予以强制收购或者贬值收购。情节严重的，由工商行政管理机关处以罚款或者没收。
　　（六）违反本条例第五章有关金银进出国境管理规定或者用各种方法偷运金银出境的，由海关依据本条例和国家海关法规处理。
　　（七）违反本条例第十四条规定的，由中国人民银行予以收兑。对直接责任人员由有关单位追究行政责任。
　　第三十二条　违反本条例规定，已构成犯罪行为的，由司法机关依法追究刑事责任。
第七章　附　则
　　第三十三条　本条例的施行细则，由中国人民银行会同国务院有关部门制定。
　　第三十四条　边疆少数民族地区的金银管理需要作某些变通规定的，由有关省、自治区人民政府会同中国人民银行根据本条例制定。
　　第三十五条　本条例自发布之日起施行。过去有关部门制定的金银管理办法即行废止。

This English document is coming from the "LAWS AND REGULATIONS OF THE PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA GOVERNING FOREIGN-RELATED MATTERS" (1991.7) which is compiled by the Brueau of Legislative Affairs of the State Council of the People's Republic of China, and is published by the China Legal System Publishing House.
In case of discrepancy, the original version in Chinese shall prevail.
Whole Document (法规全文)

REGULATIONS OF THE PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA ON THE CONTROL OF GOLD AND SILVER (Promulgated by the State Council on June 15, 1983)
Chapter I General Provisions

Article 1
These Regulations are formulated for the purpose of tightening control of gold and silver, ensuring the demands for gold and silver in national economic construction, and banning smuggling and speculation in gold and silver.
Article 2
The gold and silver referred to in these Regulations include:
(1) gold and silver extracted form ore deposits, and gold and silver refined as a by-product;
(2) gold and silver bars, nuggets, bullion and powder;
(3) gold and silver coins;
(4) gold and silver articles and gold- or silver-based alloy articles;
(5) gold and silver contained in chemical products; and
(6) gold and silver tailings, and gold and silver contained in residual, liquid and solid wastes.
Platinum shall be controlled according to the relevant State provisions.
The gold and silver with a cultural relic nature shall be controlled according to the Law of the People's Republic of China on Protection of Cultural Relics.
Article 3
The State pursues a policy of unified control and monopoly purchase and allocation with regard to gold and silver.
All gold and silver earnings and expenditures of State organs, armed forces, organizations, schools, State-owned enterprises, institutions, urban and rural collective economic organizations within the territory of the People's Republic of China (hereinafter referred to as organizations within territory) shall be incorporated in the State plan for gold and silver earnings and expenditures.
Article 4
The competent agency of the State responsible for gold and silver is the People's Bank of China.
The People's Bank of China is responsible for managing the State's gold and silver reserves; responsible for the purchase, allocation and sale of gold and silver; it shall work out and control purchasing, allocating and
selling prices of gold and silver in conjunction with the State competent agency responsible for commodity prices; it shall work in conjunction with the relevant competent agencies to examine and approve units dealing in (including processing and retailing) gold and silver articles and chemical products containing gold and silver and the recovery of gold and silver from residual, liquid and solid wastes containing them (hereinafter
referred to as business units), and shall control and inspect the gold and silver market; it shall supervise the implementation of these Regulations.

Article 5
All gold and silver in the possession of the organizations within territory except the raw materials, euipment, vessels and souvenirs retained for use with the permission of the People's Bank of China, must
be sold to the Bank and shall not be disposed of or kept without authorization.

Article 6
The State protects the possession of gold and silver lawfully obtained by individuals.
Article 7
No units and individuals within the territory of the People's Republic of China are allowed to use gold and silver to calculate prices, to engage in private buying and selling of gold and silver, or to use it as a mortgage in respect of borrowing and lending.
Chapter II Control of Gold and Silver Purchase

Article 8
The purchase of gold and silver is monopolized by the People's Bank of China. No unit or individual is permitted to purchase gold and silver unless permitted or entrusted by the Bank.
Article 9
All gold and silver mined and refined by factories and mines, rural communes, brigades and teams, armed forces and individuals engaging in and producing gold and silver (including that extracted from ore deposits and
refined as by-product), must be sold to the People's Bank of China, and must not be kept for sale, exchange or use by themselves without authorization.
The producing units listed in the preceding paragraph must tighten control over finished and semi-finished gold and silver products in the manufacturing process according to the relevant provisions, and must not
sell or otherwise dispose of such products themselves without authorization.
Article 10
The State encourages business units and those units using gold and silver to recover gold and silver from associated mineral ores and from residual liquid and solid wastes containing gold and silver.
Units listed in the preceding paragraph must sell their recovered gold and silver to the People's Bank of China, and must not keep them for sale, exchange or use by themselves without authorization, except those retained for reuse by units using gold and silver with the permission of the People's Bank of China.
Article 11
All gold and silver extracted or refined by organizations within territory as a by-product from imported gold, silver or ore products must be sold to the People's Bank of China, except for the gold and silver kept with the permission of the Bank or those for reexport following processing the imported materials in accordance with relevant provisions, and must not be sold, exchanged or retained for use by themselves.
Article 12
Individuals wishing to sell gold or silver must sell it to the People's Bank of China.
Article 13
Any excavated gold and silver objects without legal owners belong to the State. No unit or individual may melt down, destroy, or take possession of such gold and silver. Excavated gold and silver objects without legal
owners discovered by any unit or individual shall be sold to the People's Bank of China and the receipts from such sales shall be turned over to the Treasury; those found to be of historical value upon evaluation by local cultural administration departments shall be handled in accordance with the Law of the People's Republic of China on the Protection of Cultural Relics.

Article 14
All gold and silver confiscated by the public security, judicial, Customs, industry and commerce administration, taxation and other State organs according to law must be sold to the People's Bank of China, and must not be disposed of by these organs or substituted with other articles. The sale proceeds from confiscated gold and silver shall be turned over to the Treasury according to relevant provisions.
Chapter III Control of Allocation and Sale of Gold and Silver
Article 15
Units requiring gold and silver for use shall submit to the People's Bank of China a plan requesting the use of gold and silver according to specified procedures, and the Bank shall supply such gold and silver after
examination and approval. The People's Bank of China shall supply gold and silver according to the approved plan, and must not reduce at will the amount approved or delay delivery.
Article 16
Foreign-capital enterprises, Chinese-foreign equity joint ventures and foreign businessmen within the territory of the People's Republic of China purchasing gold and silver articles or processing goods containing gold and silver thus wishing to acquire gold and silver supplies in China shall make application according to the specified procedures to the People's Bank of China for examination and approval and fulfillment of the request.

Article 17
Units using gold and silver must establish their utilization system, comply strictly with the earmarked utilization, and return any unused portion. Without the permission of the People's Bank of China, they shall
not transfer gold and silver materials (including semi-finished products) to others or use them for any other purposes.
Article 18
The People's Bank of China has the authority, within the scope provided for in these Regulations, to supervise and check up on units using gold and silver. The units concerned shall provide the Bank with truthful information and data in regard to the use of gold and silver.
Chapter IV Control of Business Units and Self-Employed Silver-smiths

Article 19
Units applying for dealing in (including processing and marketing of) gold and silver articles and chemical products containing gold and silver, and those recovering gold and silver from residual, liquid and solid wastes containing them, shall be subject to examination and approval of the People's Bank of China and the relevant competent agencies according to the relevant provisions and approving procedures of the State and shall register with and obtain operating licences from the administrative department for industry and commerce before they begin operations.
Article 20
Business units must conduct their business within the approved scope, and shall not alter the scope of business without authorization, embezzle gold and silver or use them for any other purpose, or illegally purchase them in the course of their operations.

Article 21
The minting and issuing of gold- and silver-based souvenir coins shall be handled by the People's Bank of China, and no other unit may mint, imitate or issue such coins. The export of gold- and silver-based souvenir badges (or plaques) shall be handled respectively by the People's Bank of China and the Ministry of Foreign Economic Relations and Trade of the People's Republic of China.
Article 22
Commission stores and second-hand shops may not purchase or sell on commission gold and silver articles and appliances. Jewellery shops may purchase jewellery inlaid with gold and silver for sale abroad, but may
not purchase or sell gold and silver articles and appliances. The People's Bank of China is responsible for purchasing gold and silver articles for export and supplying them to the foreign trade departments.
Article 23
Self-employed silversmiths in border areas inhabited by minority nationalities and in coastal areas with a concentration of relatives of overseas Chinese, may engage in processing and repairing gold and silver articles for clients upon the approval of the People's Bank of China at the county level or above and of the administration for industry and commerce, but are not allowed to purchase or sell gold and silver articles.
Article 24
The State allows individuals to send gold and silver jewellery by post, and specific measures for control thereof shall be worked out by the People's Bank of China in conjunction with the Ministry of Post and
Telecommunications.
Chapter V Control of Gold and Silver Taken into or out of the Territory of China

Article 25
There is no limit to the quantity of gold and silver to be brought into the People's Republic of China. However, this must be declared at the Customs of the People's Republic of China at the port of entry.
Article 26
Gold and silver taken or retaken out of China shall be inspected and released by the Customs of the People's Republic of China according to the quantity specified in the certificate issued by the People's Bank of China
or the declaration form at the time of entry; it may not be taken out if no certificate is produced or if the amount exceeds that specified in the declaration form at the time of entry.
Article 27
Gold and silver jewellery (including inlaid jewellery handicraft and art products and vessels) to be carried out of China by tourists shall be inspected and released by the Customs of the People's Republic of China
against the special invoices issued by the domestic units dealing in gold and silver articles. Without such invoices, the articles may not be taken out of China.
Article 28
When Chinese citizens, foreign nationals or stateless persons wish to leave the People's Republic of China to immigrate abroad, they may each carry out up to 1 liang (31.25 grams) in gold jewellery, 10 liang (312.50
grams) in silver jewellery and 20 liang (625 grams) in silver vessels.
Items not exceeding these limits shall be allowed to be carried out upon inspection by the Customs of the People's Republic of China.
Article 29
There is no limit to the quantity of gold and silver to be imported as raw materials by foreign-capital enterprises and Chinese-foreign equity joint ventures in the People's Republic of China. Export products containing a high percentage of gold and silver shall be released upon verification and
approval by the People's Bank of China. Items not verified and approved or in excess of the approved amount shall not be exported.
Chapter VI Rewards and Penalties

Article 30
Units or individuals who make the following contributions shall be commended or given appropriate material rewards by the State:
(1) those who have made marked successes in recovering or controlling gold and silver in strict implementation of the State policies and decrees concerning gold and silver;
(2) those who have had outstanding performance in the protection of gold and silver for the State in the struggle against violations of law and criminal acts such as smuggling and speculation;
(3) those who have promptly reported or handed over to the responsible organ upon discovery of unearthed gold and silver without legal owner, thus rendering a service to the state; and
(4) those who have donated to the State their personal gold and silver collections.

Article 31
The following acts in violation of these Regulations shall be subject to penalty imposed, in accordance with the severity of the case, by the People's Bank of China, or by the administrative department for industry
and commerce, or by the Customs, according to their respective terms of reference:
(1) If gold and silver have been purchased, sold, exchanged or retained without authorization in violation of Articles 8, 9, 10, and 11 of these Regulations, the People's Bank of China or the administrative department
for industry and commerce shall resort to compulsory purchase or devalued purchase. In cases of serious violation, the administrative department for industry and commerce may impose fines in addition, or simply confiscate the gold and silver in question.
In cases of violation of Articles 8, 9, 10, and 11 of these Regulations, the administrative department for industry and commerce may revoke violators' business licences in addition.
(2) If unearthed gold and silver objects without legal owners have been melted down, destroyed or held in possession in violation of Article 13 of these Regulations, the People's Bank of China shall recover the unearthed objects or the administrative department for industry and commerce shall impose fines.
(3) If the intended use of gold and silver is altered, or gold and silver used as raw materials are transferred without authorization in violation of Article 17 of these Regulations, the People's Bank of China shall either issue a warning or recover the gold and silver allocated. In cases of serious violation, fines shall be imposed or even supplies suspended.
(4) For such acts as dealing in gold and silver without authorization, altering the scope of business without authorization, illegally purchasing or using gold and silver for other purpose, or embezzling gold and silver,
in violation of Articles 19, 20, 21, 22 and 23 of these Regulations, the administrative department for industry and commerce shall impose fines or confiscate the goods. In cases of serious violation, business licenses may be revoked in addition and suspension of business operations be ordered.

(5) If gold and silver are used to calculate prices, bought or sold privately, or used as a means of a mortgage in respect of borrowing and lending in violation of Article 7 of these Regulations, the People's Bank
of China or the administrative department for industry and commerce shall purchase such gold and silver compulsorily or at devalued prices. In cases of serious violation, the administrative department for industry and commerce may impose fines or confiscate the gold and silver in question.
(6) If the provisions in Chapter V of these Regulations concerning the gold and silver taken into or out of China are violated or various means are used to smuggle gold and silver out of China, the Customs shall deal
with such cases in accordance with these Regulations and the Customs law and regulations.
(7) If the provisions of Article 14 of these Regulations are violated, the People's Bank of China shall purchase the gold and silver in question. The administrative liability of those directly responsible shall be investigated by the relevant units.
Article 32
If violations of these Regulations constitute crimes, the judicial organs shall investigate the criminal responsibilities according to law.

Chapter VII Supplementary Provisions

Article 33
The rules for implementation of these Regulations shall be formulated by the People's Bank of China in conjunction with the relevant departments under the State Council.
Article 34
If modified regulations are required for gold and silver control in border areas inhabited by minority nationalities, the people's governments of the provinces and autonomous regions concerned shall formulate them in conjunction with the People's Bank of China in accordance with these Regulations.
Article 35
These Regulations shall go into effect as of the date of promulgation. Measures of gold and silver control previously formulated by the related departments thus are hereby nullified.

::?????????????2002????????????::

国家烟草专卖局文件

国家烟草专卖局关于认真抓好2002年烟叶收购工作的紧急通知

有关省、自治区、直辖市烟草专卖局（公司）：

　　最近，全行业都在认真贯彻全国烟草专卖局长（总经理）座谈会和全国烟叶收购工作现场会议精神，积极做好今年的烟叶生产收购工作。在此期间，国家局先后派出两个工作组分赴烟叶产区进行调研，了解情况。从目前各单位反馈的情况分析，近期除陕西、河南等省遭受到不同程度的雹灾外，全国大部分烟区的烟叶生产有望获得较好收成。但是，随着烟叶市场的变化和烟叶经营状况的有所好转，个别产区放松了对烟叶种植面积的严格管理，出现了部分产区超计划种植、超计划收购的现象和势头。目前，全国烟叶收购工作全面展开，为了确保国家计划的严肃性，按国家计划收购烟叶，现紧急通知如下：

　　一、要继续坚定不移地贯彻落实国务院和国务院办公厅两个《紧急通知》精神，坚决做好今年烟叶收购工作

　　近几年来，各单位在地方政府重视支持下，认真贯彻国务院和国务院办公厅两个《紧急通知》精神，做了很多艰苦细致的控制总量的工作，取得了很大成效，使烟叶库存严重积压，烟叶经营亏损的困难状况有所好转，为烟草行业平稳发展做出了较大贡献。但是，目前全国烟叶库存仍然偏大，部分产区商业库存积压比较严重。为严肃收购纪律，做好烟叶收购工作，国家局再次强调要坚决贯彻落实国务院和国务院办公厅两个《紧急通知》精神，继续坚持“市场引导、计划种植、主攻质量、调整布局”的烟叶生产指导方针，落实“控制总量、提高质量、优化布局、优化结构”的工作重点，认真按照全国烟草专卖局长（总经理）座谈会和全国烟叶收购工作现场会的部署和要求，组织好今年烟叶工作，坚决把烟叶收购量控制在国家计划之内。

　　二、严格按照国家计划和与烟农签订的合同收购烟叶

　　各单位要认真执行国家下达的收购计划和与烟农签订收购合同，坚决按合同规定的交烟等级数量收购烟叶。国家局再次重申，产区各单位要坚决按合同收购烟叶，合同外烟叶一律不收购。对于无合同、超合同收购烟叶或隐瞒不报的，一经发现要严肃处理。

　　三、严格执行国家的烟叶经济政策

　　烟叶的收购价格和国家标准都属于国家的强制性政策，必须不折不扣的执行，不得随意修改和变更。在烟叶收购中，绝不允许出现压级压价、抬级抬价、给烟农打“白条”等现象发生。

　　四、加强组织领导和监督检查，严肃纪律，坚决制止超计划收购和违反有关政策法规的行为

　　产区各省级局（公司）要建立领导责任制，收购期间主要领导要全面负责，分管领导亲自抓，一级抓一级，逐级负责。要组织烟叶收购工作组，深入到烟叶产区县（市）、基层站和农户进行巡回检查指导，及时发现问题、解决问题。

　　五、切实搞好烟叶生产收购工作各项服务

　　要做好对烟农的各项服务工作，改善服务态度，提高服务质量，为烟农交烟提供方便。要加强对烟叶生产收购的技术指导，提高烘烤和分级技术水平，改善烟叶等级质量，减少低次烟叶，增加农民收入。

　　各省级局（公司）要迅速将本《紧急通知》精神传达到烟叶产区各单位，提出具体贯彻意见和措施，并将贯彻情况于9月10日前报中国烟叶生产购销公司。


　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　二○○二年八月二十日

?????�????? ?????�

?????�????? ?????�欠条一人写 债务二人担

合伙期间的债务应共同偿还
作者：刘赞芳 发布时间：2005-08-10 15:53:45

中国法院网讯 魏青让与彭引谋合伙购买汽车拉货期间，魏青让为购买汽车轮胎欠款7560元，债权人在向魏青让与彭引谋索要欠款无果的情况下，将二人告上法庭。8月10日，河南省灵宝市人民法院一审判决被告魏青让、彭引谋共同偿还欠原告郭衡思轮胎款7560元。
2002年12月20日，魏青让与彭引谋合伙购买康明斯大货车一辆，用于拉货。合伙期间，魏青让于2004年7月4日、7月14日、7月19日三次从郭衡思经营的汽车配件经销部为该车购买轮胎，共计7560元。当时未付款，魏青让给原告出具了欠条。后郭衡思向魏青让、彭引谋二人催要欠款。魏青让认为，该车车主为彭引谋，车已被彭引谋转卖，该款应由彭引谋偿还；彭引谋则认为，该欠条不是自己书写，且魏青让与自己的合伙经营在2004年7月已结束，合伙期间谁经手的债务谁承担。

灵宝法院审理后认为，欠条虽为被告魏青让一人书写，但根据查明的事实，二被告当时系合伙关系,该债务用于合伙经营的车辆，故法院支持了原告要求二被告共同偿还该欠款的诉讼请求。

?????�??????????18?????�

?????�??????????18?????�银行缺乏诚信设套收贷18万被判退赔

作者：华建文 舒平 发布时间：2005-08-12 15:17:55

中国法院网讯 小王买房子时委托中介公司向银行贷款18万，可由于中介公司欠了银行钱，这18万元住房贷款被银行强行扣下，卖房人李先生收不到房款，将买房人小王、中介公司和银行都告上了法庭。8月10日，江苏省苏州市沧浪区人民法院一审判决银行承担18万元还款责任。
李先生有一处坐落在横塘的老房子，房屋建筑面积84.8平方米，原来一直是其母亲所有，母亲过世之后，李先生就计划着放到中介公司出售。2004年10月28日，经过中介公司马经理的介绍，李先生认识了急于买房的小王，双方签订了《房屋买卖中介协议》，约定房价为28.1万元。根据协议的约定，小王按照约定支付了李先生购房款10.1万元，剩余的18万元小王则委托了马经理去办理房屋贷款手续。马经理来到了自己长期为客户办理贷款的相城区一家银行，经过协商在2004年11月12日签订了《二手房购房借款合同》，小王向银行贷款18万元，中介公司则作为保证人。合同中还约定“借款人不得以任何理由将贷款挪作他用。贷款期限为240月。” 按照借款合同的要求，小王于2004年12月15日开始还贷，但银行却迟迟未能将小王所借款按照约定打入中介马经理的账户。

李先生拿不到剩余的房款，就多次向中介和买房人催讨房款18万元。在得知银行未将贷款打入中介马经理所提供的账户后，三人于2005年1月10日一起前往银行催讨贷款。可三人到银行一了解才知道，原来中介公司老板的马经理前段时间陪另外一个买房人到该家银行办理了一笔房屋贷款，由于银行规定中介不做保证人，就不可以贷款，当时中介公司只能作为保证人在合同上盖了章签了字，可是最近这个买房人不再还银行贷款了，导致银行无法收回该贷款。银行工作人员便要求马经理写下“承诺书”，贷款由其个人归还后，才可以将小王的借款放出。在此情况下，马经理为了使小王的借款及时落实，以便于李先生的售房款18万元得到履行，在不得已的情况下，答应了银行的要求，表示愿意书写“承诺书”。2005年1月19日，银行分二次在被告马经理提供账户上，强扣了33.92万余元，导致该账户欠款33.92万余元。然后于当日向该账户打入38万元贷款，其中有买房人小王的18万元贷款，结果正负相抵，该账户仅有4万余元存款。马经理的中介公司只拿到了4万元，自然也就付不出这18万元。李先生拿不到房款，在万般无奈之下，将中介公司、银行、买房人都告上了法庭，要求支付拖欠的房款18万元以及违约金84780元。

买房人小王辩称：我在《房屋买卖中介服务协议》及《中国银行二手房购房借款合同》订立后，全面履行了协议，并按照合同的约定于2004年12月开始向银行归还贷。到现在已经还了半年多了，要我再支付购房款肯定没有道理。

中介老板马经理却是一肚子苦水，这套房屋的中介买卖我未收任何信息费，我是受买房人小王的委托办理房贷事宜。但银行未履行贷款义务，造成我不能将18万贷款交付给卖房人李先生。而且前面一笔贷款我是担保人，当初也就收取了1400元中介费，现在银行就把这14万元算到了自己的头上，真是冤枉。对于本该由商业银行自行规避的二手房贷款风险，采取由房屋中介机构承担二手房贷款担保角色的做法转嫁到了房屋中介商的头上，对此，马经理表示很是愤慨，自己承担的风险和收益太不相称。

银行方面认为，原告与被告买房人小王、中介之间的关系是房屋买卖关系，与我们银行没有关联性。我们与中介及买房人小王之间的借款合同关系与房屋买卖关系不是一个法律关系。请求法院驳回原告对银行的诉讼请求。

法院审理后认为，被告银行事先设置被告马经理账户负额的情况，再将该款打入该负额账户，又明知该款非马经理所有的，却强行扣划该款，致使中介方马经理无法代理买房人小王向原告李先生支付购房款，且银行的上述行为明显违反借款合同约定及中国人民银行《贷款规则》贷款专款专用的规定，违反诚实信用原则，故实际银行并未向借款人小王出借贷款，导致本案纠纷的发生。对此，被告银行应承担相应的民事责任。最终判决被告银行支付给购房人小王18万元，小王再将该款支付给原告李先生。同时三被告共同赔偿原告李先生逾期付款违约金84780元。

编辑：李金红

Giving rewards for returning lost property?

Giving rewards for returning lost property?
Giving rewards for returning lost property?
China Daily Updated: 2005-08-12 06:01

In the middle of July, the Standing Committee of the 10th National People's Congress (NPC) released the Property Rights Law, seeking feedback from the general public.

One of the most contentious matters in the draft is whether a reward should be paid for recovered property. The draft clearly stipulates lost property should be returned to its rightful owner.

Those that find misplaced articles should inform the owner or the person who lost them, or hand them in to relevant authorities, within 20 days of the property being found.

The owner of the lost property should cover any storage fee incurred when they collect their belongings. If the finder has used the item in some way they have no right to claim either a storage fee or a reward.

Those who offer a reward for returned property should pay up as agreed. Lost property reverts to the State if nobody claims it.

After the draft law was made public, it sparked extensive debate. Some say the clause encouraging the payment of rewards must be changed, as it goes against the traditional Chinese virtue of "returning the money found without payment." The law should encourage these sound values and call on society to carry on this tradition, many think.

But others argue the terms of the draft do not contradict traditional virtues. Judging from foreign legislation, the attitude appears to be that if lost property is of little value and is not State-owned, finders can be keepers.

China's legislation should be brought in line with international practice. It is unnecessary to return items worth perhaps less than 10 yuan (US$1.23), as the trouble it might take to track down the owner would make it impractical.

As a result, finders feel it is within their rights to keep property of little value. For more valuable property they have the right to claim a certain amount as a handling fee, and would expect to receive a reward.

Zhao Chenguang, an official from the Wenfeng District People's Procuratorate in Anyang, Henan Province, said: "From a very young age, people are educated about returning money found. However, does the new trend make this traditional virtue seem old-fashioned?"

A young security guard from the countryside, who earned only 300 yuan (US$37) a month, found a wallet containing 80,000 yuan (US$9,870) in cash and other valuables whilst on duty, and took the trouble to return the wallet to its owner in Anyang. The young man refused to accept the 5,000-yuan (US$616) reward offered by the owner.

The media praised the young man for his righteous act, especially in light of the fact that his father is a poor farmer and his mother has been ill in bed for a long time. The reward money would have been a huge help for him and his family.

Many were inspired by the unselfish security guard's actions. But others took pity on him.

Some say the man was right not to take the reward, as he became a righteous hero. On the other hand, some believe he could have accepted the money with a clear conscience as it would have been proper, reasonable and lawful to do so.

Indeed it would have been right for the young guard to take the money. He should be rewarded not only for returning the lost wallet, but also for his honesty and integrity. China is entering a new era of the rule of law and people are becoming more sensitive to the principles of right and wrong. According to the General Principles of the Civil Law of China (the General Principles), people should be compensated for voluntary service. It is therefore lawful to accept cash rewards.

So why did the young man refuse to accept the money? He was obviously influenced by traditional values, and of course his action was his personal choice. But in terms of encouraging people to act morally and rationally, the young man should have accepted the reward.

If integrity creates embarrassment, does it mean the evaluation criterion of this social virtue is out-dated? Should virtues advance with the times?

Xia Qingwen, a freelance writer, said: "I think people confuse the two concepts of debt and remuneration. Their differences lie first in voluntary service."

Volunteering is a legal concept prescribed in the General Principles, Article 93. If a person provides services in order to protect another person's interests when he or she is not legally or contractually obligated to do so, he or she is entitled to claim from the beneficiary the expenses necessary for such assistance.

The stipulation is intended to encourage people to help others in a just cause to create a harmonious social atmosphere from a legal perspective. It can also be viewed as an incentive to return lost property.

But if someone incurs a loss in the process of managing another's affairs or pays necessary storage and management fees, a debtor-creditor relationship will be formed. That is called a debt for voluntary service, which should be repaid by the owner. This system is recognized in the majority of countries.

Remuneration is money claimed by one person, apart from necessary expenses, for helping another, the purpose of which is to gain additional profit. The traditional Chinese virtue advocating returning misplaced articles aims to promote morality. In other words, it calls for people doing good turns without counting gains or losses, which is totally different from the debt created by voluntary service.

In a society with a market economy, if the law does not protect the rights and interests of a voluntary service provider, rewarded only by moral superiority, who will be willing to sacrifice his or her time, energy and money to care for or return lost property for free? If this idea becomes dominant, lost property will go unreturned and morality will not be promoted.

Therefore the stipulation in the draft law is reasonable and rational.

He Xiangdong, a columnist at People's Daily, said: "Returning found money belongs to the category of moral behaviour. The legislation deals with property rights, so the emphasis of the law should be requiring citizens to leave lost property where it is, without being virtuous in the name of the law. Meanwhile, it is irrational to encourage people to return money found by way of rewarding them."

When someone finds lost property that has nothing to do with him or her or the wider public interest, does he or she have the right to exercise any power over those items? From the perspective of the property rights law, the proper thing to do should be "leaving the thing where it is."

Our Constitution has already confirmed the protection of private property, which is inviolable. In addition, if someone returns lost property, he or she must do so in the spirit of good will, and should not claim a reward.

As for owners, it is up to them to show their gratitude whether materially or not. If the giving of rewards is forcibly stipulated by law, owners may be upset and violate it. As for lost property keepers, if the law says it is accceptable for them to claim a reward, things may turn sour.

We should not encourage good deeds by way of offering legal rewards. We may try to preserve morality by law but will actually destroy it in doing so.

(China Daily 08/12/2005 page4)

Scholars want outdated civil law revised

option

2001-04-10
China Daily

Chinese law scholars say it is time to think about revising the 10-year-old Civil Procedure Law because the nation's market economy is developing at an increasingly high speed and judicial reform is deepening.

"Conditions are now ripe to consider revision as the theory and practice of civil law have both been abundant during the past ten years," said Jiang Wei, a professor of civil procedural laws with the Renmin University of China and a major drafter of the 10-year-old law.

"The implementation of this law helped to highlight the importance of procedural justice in a nation where substantive law prevails over procedural law and criminal law prevails over civil law," said Fan Chongyi, director of the Procedural Law Research Centre with the China University of Politics and Law.

The law was widely regarded as a milestone in the country's legislation 10 years ago, he said.

However, Fan said the law needs to be revised to better meet the demands of the market economy and ongoing judicial reform under new circumstances.

Fan made the remarks at a national seminar on civil procedural law held yesterday in Beijing.

Huang Songyou, a civil division chief with the Supreme People's Court, shared Fan's view.

"Problems that have arisen in the market economy are challenging the current civil procedure law and regulations," he said.

The major problem of the law is that regulations on evidence, the enforcement of verdicts and the time limits for trials are too general for handling some complicated cases.

Late Chinese leader Deng Xiaoping's historical south tour, which put the nation's reform and opening up move in the fast lane, took place in 1992, one year after the Civil Procedure Law came into force.

Some of the regulations of the law such as the rules of evidence are too general and simple for judges to apply, Huang complained. They should be more specific and practical, he said. He said the future revision of the law should not only suit economic development but also offer more legal support for the country's ongoing judicial reform.

Some of these reform measures in civil trials are supported by judicial interpretation in the Supreme People's Court rather than the current civil procedure law.

The National People's Congress, the country's top legislative body, empowers the Supreme People's Court to work out judicial interpretations to guide the lower courts when there is a legal loophole or no relevant law.

The two-day seminar, which attracted more than 70 scholars of civil procedural law from across the country, discussed the problems of the existing law and possible solutions to them.

option

optionRespect for law with no exceptions


2002-12-25
China Daily


A local court's recent ruling on juvenile offenders was calculated to upset the country's legal professionals.

The Intermediate People's Court of Hefei, capital of East China's Anhui Province, issued a ruling earlier this month saying it will entrust some so-called "social investigators" to collect information about the experience and daily activities of juvenile delinquents, which will be taken into account when deciding their punishment.

The measure is designed to give "special care" to young offenders and help them become reformed characters.

This is understandable to an extent in that increasing attention is being paid to the rights of suspects and defendants in China's criminal procedures in recent years.

But the Hefei court has overdone it this time. By requiring evidence, particularly for young criminals, the court has failed to maintain a neutral stance, which is unfair to the victims of juvenile delinquency.

In addition, providing evidence is beyond the court's authority.

The practice of the Hefei court is, in effect, also creating extra standards for juvenile cases, which is detrimental to the integrity of the country's legal environment.

China's legal system is founded on uniform statutes made by the legislative body, which is a key to the stability of this vast nation.

In other words, what are crimes, how to verify crimes and how to punish criminals should be defined exclusively by the law, rather than anyone else.

If every local court set their own standards in enforcing the law, the law will lose its meaning in the country.

Although local courts' constant innovation in their work has solidified China's legal environment, some reins are still needed on random inventions such as the ruling of the Hefei court.

option

optionFair rules on biz disputes


2003-02-11
China Daily


A plan is underway to revise the Arbitration Law to make China more business-friendly and more amicable for arbitration seekers.

"The present Arbitration Law needs changing to protect the autonomy of arbitration parties, to make the procedure more flexible, so as to meet the requirements of modern commerce development."

The remark was made by Wang Shengchang, vice-chairman of the China International Economic and Trade Arbitration Commission (CIETAC), in an interview with China Daily yesterday.

A team of experts at CIETAC are carrying out all the necessary preparatory work to revise the eight-year-old law.

Their research findings will be passed on to the NPC Standing Committee, the national law-making body, Wang said.

Meanwhile, CIETAC will also be working out some special procedural rules to ensure the fair and efficient settlement of disputes, especially in a way that is less time consuming. But Wang declined to elaborate on the rules that are still being drawn up.

The Arbitration Law was enacted by the NPC Standing Committee in 1994 and came into effect in 1995.

Some provisions of the law are outdated even though they all played an important role in the course of the development of arbitration services in China, Wang noted.

For example, he said, the law stipulates that all arbitration should be institutional arbitration and does not recognize ad hoc arbitration.

"But now we should have ad hoc arbitration, because it's a very popular method in the world and can offer greater choice to parties involved," said Wang, who is also director of the Legal Affairs Department of the China Council for the Promotion of International Trade.

Wang said the rule, under which parties have to choose arbitrators from a list, has left out the possibility of other experts offering their services.

He further contended that the law should be more flexible towards the validity of arbitration agreements.

In their current practice, Chinese courts tend to overrule the validity of arbitration agreements for some minor defects, Wang said. But they should instead follow the international practice and adopt a policy in favour of the validity of arbitration agreements.

Wang said he and his colleagues are expecting the proposed revisions to be approved in 2005, the 10th year when the existing Arbitration Law is in place.

In order to strengthen its hard-won prestige in the world, the CIETAC will embark on a large-scale effort this year to train arbitrators and to enlist experts from other professional fields to join its arbitration panel, Wang said.

CIETAC will provide continuing education to its 518 arbitrators while soliciting expertise from such industries as construction, financial and securities services, and information technologies.

Last year, CIETAC handled 468 arbitration requests involving overseas parties and another 216 domestic requests. All these cases involved a total of 11.3 billion yuan (US$1.4 billion) under disputes.

Wang attributed CIETAC's success to its adherence to institutional independence and impartiality in its practice.

Around one-third of CIETAC's 518 arbitrators come from more than 20 countries or regions including the US, UK, Japan, Sweden, Singapore and Hong Kong.

option

optionProtecting private property rights


2003-02-20
China Daily


The Ninth National People's Congress (NPC) has made legislative history by giving unprecedented protection to private property.


The 1999 amendment to the country's Constitution upgraded the non-State economy from a "complement to the State-owned economy" to "an important constituting part" of the socialist market economy.

The amendment, approved by the plenary meeting of the Ninth NPC, has been widely regarded as a milestone in the promotion of private enterprise in China.

It has not only clarified the nation's stance of protecting private property but also encouraged the development of the private sector.

Private enterprises are defined as private businesses employing more than eight people. Those with fewer than eight employees fall into the category of individual businesses in China.

The nation now has more than 1.7 million privately run domestic enterprises representing a total investment of 1.1 trillion yuan (US$132.85 billion) and a labour force of 27 million, statistics reveal.

"The better private property is protected, the greater the contribution the private sector will make to the national economy," said Bao Yujun, chairman of the Beijing-based Institution on the Promotion of Private Economy.

"The sense of security, in both economic and political terms, will still the qualms of investors and encourage them to expand their businesses."

The top legislature's efforts to step up protection was consolidated at the end of last year when the draft of the nation's first civil code was submitted to the NPC Standing Committee for preliminary reading.

The civil code, currently under legislative scrutiny, is expected to offer more comprehensive protection of private property.

"The civil code will play a vital role in promoting the national economy, maintaining social stability and safeguarding people's lives," said Wang Shengming, director of the Civil Legislation Office with the Legal Affairs Commission of the NPC Standing Committee.

The civil legislation affects both the daily life of individuals and the operation of corporations.

It regulates almost every activity that a corporation may undertake, such as trade, leasing, transportation, storage, fund-raising, settlement and the development of new products.

It also offers guidelines for individuals on the basic necessities of life - food, clothing, shelter and transportation - as well as recreation, marriage and family, among other activities.

The civil code, which promotes equality, fairness and good faith, offers more comprehensive protection of private property by introducing a volume of tangible property law.

In the draft code, a whole chapter has been devoted to the protection of private property.

The main purpose of the property rights law is to define and specify rights of possession in China. It is a crucial part of civil legislation.

Only when the right of possession is guaranteed can investors feel confident when investing, said Wang Liming, a civil law professor with the Law School of the Beijing-based Renmin University of China.

The draft civil code has also stipulated the right of individuals and corporations to mine, prospect, fish and use water.

option

optionBankruptcy laws need review


2003-03-17
China Daily



The country is in urgent need of a new bankruptcy law to ensure that failed non-State-owned enterprises can, where viable, continue to trade and also to better protect the interests of their creditors.

Wang Liming, a leading civil law professor with Renmin University of China, made the appeal to the first session of the 10th National People's Congress (NPC).

"The market economy is a competitive one in which enterprises must follow the rule that the fittest survives fierce competition," said Wang, who is also an NPC deputy.

He said a sound bankruptcy mechanism will encourage those enterprises concerned to try and survive and develop in the face of competition.

The Standing Committee of the Sixth NPC adopted a bankruptcy law for trial implementation in 1986, when China's economic reform was still in its infancy. The law only applies to State-owned enterprises.

However, a variety of businesses have emerged in the past two decades as reforms have deepened, including Chinese-foreign equity joint ventures, Chinese-foreign co-operative joint ventures and domestic or foreign solely invested corporations.

Currently, any bankruptcy concerning these newly emerged enterprises does not fall within the remit of any specific legal powers, Wang said.

He further complained that the current legislation lacks many basic and important rules for bankruptcy.

For example, it does not make any specific provision concerning the restructure of the firm concerned, a measure which could effectively help those large or medium-sized companies on the brink of bankruptcy to survive, said Wang.

He added that the incomplete stipulation concerning the liability of bankrupt firms allows debtors to abuse the existing bankruptcy mechanism by transferring their assets to avoid payment of their debts to the detriment of their creditors' interests.

"The nation should work out a new law with a sound bankruptcy mechanism especially since its accession to the World Trade Organization," Wang said.

option

optionLawyers: Victims deserve more


2003-06-23
China Daily


Legal experts in China have called for the amendment of the nine-year-old Law on State Compensation to guarantee that victims of State infringement actions will be reimbursed for losses.

"The standards set for compensation are too low and are basically compensative instead of punitive," said Ma Huaide, law professor with the Beijing-based China University of Political Science and Law.

The current law, adopted in 1994 and taking effect the following year, only compensates direct losses, including medical fees and loss of earnings during a certain period of time for victims.

When a death occurs due to the illegal activities of a State department, the victim can be compensated a maximum of 20 times the annual average State salary.

Insiders told China Daily that law-makers were not sure how much money would be needed for the payment of compensation claims a decade ago. They worried the expense would be too much of a burden on national coffers.

Ma said it is now widely accepted that "direct losses" should include all unavoidable losses of forecast profits.

Yuan Shuhong, professor with the National School of Administration, said it is important the law has clauses that judicial departments, such as the police, should pay punitive compensation for losses caused by their intentional or major malfeasance.

"State compensation should on the one hand provide a judicial remedy to victims so their rights are protected and on the other hand stop administrative and law enforcement departments from abusing power and engaging in illegal actions," said Yuan.

Statistics from the Supreme People's Court reveal courts across the country handled nearly 9,400 cases of State compensation in the five years between 1996 and 2002. Victims' 36 per cent of these cases won compensation.

"Actually an infringement by a State department leaves deeper and more lasting damage on the minds of victims than infringements by any individual," Ma said, calling for the inclusion of compensation for psychological damage into the law.

It is only in recent years that Chinese legislators and courts have started to consider compensation for mental damage. The Supreme People's Court issued a judicial interpretation in 2001, saying courts can support victims in demanding money for mental damage.

But Ma said a law for compensation cases that are divided into two categories of criminal and administrative still did not exist.

According to the current law, mental damage can only be compensated through apology, restoration of reputation and clearing up of negative effects, noted Ma.

The issue of mental damage in State compensation cases was hotly debated two years ago when Ma Dandan, a beauty salon worker in Northwest China's Shaanxi Province, was illegally interrogated for 23 hours and then wrongly detained for 15 days on charges of prostitution. She asked for compensation of 5 million yuan (US$60,000). She was turned down by a local court and received a tiny compensation of only 74.66 yuan (US$9).

"There is an obvious increase in the awareness of this channel of judicial remedy among the public," noted Ma. "But if the victims do not get the compensation to which they are entitled, their confidence in the system will be harmed."

option

optionPersonal details need protection


2003-06-27
China Daily



The fourth draft of the law on citizens' identity cards is being examined at the ongoing session of the Standing Committee of the 10th Chinese National People's Congress, which started on Monday.

One of the most conspicuous differences between this and previous drafts is the addition of clauses protecting citizens' personal information.

The latest draft states that public security authorities should keep secret personal information on citizens that they have collected while producing, issuing, checking and detaining their identity cards. Leaking such information will constitute an infringement of citizens' rights and result in legal action. Serious violations might even result in criminal prosecution.

Personal information was scarcely a concern in the old days, when collective interests overwhelmed individual rights.

The draft law's inclusion of a guarantee on citizens' privacy is a fresh hallmark of the State's recognition of civic rights.

The right to privacy has also been written into the section on personal rights in the country's first draft civil code, which is also now under review.

But there is still a long way to go before individual rights are fully protected.

People are sometimes asked to give out personal information, only to find it has been leaked for commercial use without their consent.

We receive junk mail specifically addressed to us. Strange sales staff approach us, already familiar with our personal details. Our lives have been disrupted by all these unpleasant and sometimes unbearable intrusions.

Some government offices and institutions also show little respect for people's privacy. The personal data they have collected while performing their official duties are casually disclosed or even intentionally sold.

Accurate information is essential in many cases for public welfare. That is partly why we are asked to co-operate on more and more occasions. But people's increasing reluctance to share personal information with the authorities reflects their doubts over the authorities' inclination to abuse their trust.

This has a lot to do with the absence of legal liability on the official side. As long as we have to share some of our personal information, the government and its officials should be placed under a legal obligation to safeguard our privacy.

The new draft law is only a welcome first step awaiting extensive follow-up action, given the widespread lack of guarantees over personal information in our society.

option

optionArguments against harassment law groundless


2003-07-11
China Daily


The recent batch of sexual harassment cases in the country has fuelled debate over whether or not it is the right time to legislate on the matter.

While the voices demanding such a law are loud, some have expressed a worry about the possible negative effects brought about by a special policy.

In a Beijing local newspaper, some psychologists warned recently that such legislation is likely to cause uneasiness in people's social contacts.

Street interviews by the newspaper seemed to support the view. Some male respondents showed similar malaise with the suggested law. Such a law, they claimed, would "make me uncomfortable" since "I can no longer freely joke around with my female colleagues."

In other instances, some law experts raised concerns that the legislation may make companies reluctant to recruit female employees, for fear of potential trouble in the workplace.

These worries do make sense, but should not be cited as excuses to block the law that is being petitioned for. If the legislation is really pushed through, it is only natural that at the beginning people may feel restricted in their social interactions. The fears will be dispelled with better knowledge of the law.

An anti-harassment law is by no means aimed to interfere with the normal contacts between men and women, but rather prevent offensive words or actions, which have resulted in serious harm for the victims in these cases.

The complaint for not being able to speak freely with female colleagues deserves no sympathy. Some of that type of banter, while the males involved may not realize it yet, has already made their female peers feel humiliated and offended. A reminder to mind their manners is exactly the purpose of such a law.

The worry for the possible influence on women's employment is groundless. The country has no lack of rules and regulations to ensure equal employment opportunities for men and women. If necessary, harsher measures can be introduced to tackle problems that may emerge later.

A civilized society will not tolerate an assault on the dignity of its workers. Sexual harassment has evolved into a problem that society can no longer neglect, with women in most cases becoming victims.

A survey jointly conducted last year by Beijing Youth Daily and the Datasea Company suggested that 71 per cent of the women polled have at one time or another encountered sexual harassment in various forms, and that 93 per cent regarded it necessary to make a law against such injustices.

While special legislation has not been put on the agenda, relevant stipulations against sexual harassment will be added to the Law on the Protection of Women's Rights and Interests, which is under implementation.

Debates on the topic are going on. Different opinions are welcome. At a time when sexual harassment has become such a serious social problem, an exaggeration on the so-called side effects can be misleading.

option

optionJudiciary sets itself for battle


2003-08-26
China Daily


Supreme People's Court President Xiao Yang's latest call for justice and efficiency demonstrates his resolve to improve the current judicial practices.

At a meeting of high court presidents on Sunday, the top justice urged judges nationwide to wrap up all long-standing unresolved cases by November.

Aiming to build "judicature for the people," the Supreme People's Court will also introduce a series of measures later this year to regulate judges' performances, make sure litigants are better informed and tighten up the enforcement of court rulings, Xiao said.

The new measures are likely to help make the judicial authority's work more efficiently.

Hearing over 6 million cases a year, the court system is often criticized for its poor efficiency and unjust judgments that occur at times.

The tardy work of many courts has led to unbearable costs in terms of time and money for litigants and worse still, prolonged custody of suspects in criminal cases.

Despite the constant progress the judicial authority is making, the performance of some local courts remains poor often because of corruption or a lack of proficiency.

Xiao's deadline to sort out long-standing cases reflects a resolve of self-discipline.

However, how far Xiao's reform can go will to some extent hinge on the court's handling of interference from local powers over trials and enforcement, which leads to criticism from the public.

One encouraging sign is that there are gradually more ways to rein in power in line with the top leadership's promise to use authority for the people and to have a greater respect for the law.

As administrative departments outline the limits of their power, the judicial authority's aggressive move to better perform its role is well slated.

A sound execution of judicial power will advance the country's cultivation of the rule of law.

option

optionLaws should reflect market economy


2003-10-27
China Daily


Improving China's market economy related legal framework is a must for the maturity of the country's nascent mar-ket economy, according to a signed article in Beijing-based magazine China Newsweek.

Although a basic framework of market economy has been established in China thanks to relentless efforts over the past two decades, residues of the planned economy still linger and remain unsolved. The market economy framework is yet to be improved.

The third plenum of the 16th Central Committee of the Communist Party of China, which concluded early this month, thus made it an urgent task to accomplish a unified, open and orderly market system. Improvement of the economy-related law framework was stressed.

There is an imbalance between the development of China's market-driven economy and its civil and commercial legislation, according to Li Shuguang, author of the article.

Some key laws governing economic operation are still lacking, including laws regulating market entry, transaction and exit. Of those already in existence, many contradict each other or are poorly applicable, said Li, a professor from the China University of Politics and Law.

For example, the Company Law, adopted in late 1993, mainly targets State-owned enterprises. It can no longer cater to the needs of the times since it has some discriminative provisions, although in secretive forms, for non-State enterprises.

The Company Law should be revised to be more corporation-oriented, instead of State-oriented. It should lower the threshold for the market entry of private enterprises and lessen government regulations.

Laws concerning market transactions in China are the Contract Law, the Guarantee Law and the Securities Law. An anti-fraud transaction law should be drafted to complete the framework.

The revision of the Securities Law has been a focus of attention. Drafted in 1998, when Asia was haunted by financial crisis, the law concentrated more on regulation than warding off risks. However, many provisions are restrictive and forbidding principles with poor applicability.

The current divided financial operational mode should be adjusted in revising the securities law, Li said.

A mixed operational mode should be started to cater to the new circumstances and create room for further reforms of China's financial sector.

The article said that more detailed rules for securities transactions should be drafted. As well, bank capital should be allowed in the stock market and restrictions on financing and transactions by stock brokers should be eased on the basis of solid risk control.

The civil indemnity system should be stipulated in the law to protect the interests of investors from being abused. With such stipulations, the false statement, under-the-counter deals, market manipulation and malicious fraud currently plaguing the market could be stemmed. The court should also be allowed to get directly involved in cases of civil indemnity incurred in stock transactions.

Regarding market exit, the drafting of the Bankruptcy Law should be promptly completed. Hopefully it will come out soon since the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress has included it in this year's legislation plan, the article said.

Li suggested an independent national court system for bankruptcy cases be established. Those independent courts, under the direct administration of the Highest People's Court, would be free from intervention by local interests and would deal with cross-regional cases to protect the interests of creditors that may scatter across the country.

The article also calls for the drafting of an anti-monopoly law to regulate market order. It will be a basic law of the market economy environment.

China's transition from a planned economy to a market-driven one demands such a law to ensure fair competition in a monopoly-ridden market. Currently, monopoly is common in such industries as railway, telecommunications, banking and financial sector.

Meanwhile, a global merger wave has spilled over to this country. China needs such a law to push fair competition and protect the interests of consumers.

The article also proposed to change the name of current State Assets Law into the State Assets Management Law or Operational State Assets Management Law.

China has inherited a huge number of State assets, especially operational assets such as State enterprises, from the past planned economy. Because of blurred property rights and poor management, State assets losses have been a serious problem.

The loss of State assets is a rather complicated issue, and it is often difficult to untangle the relations between the involved parties.

In this condition, an overall State assets law that encompasses all aspects of the issue would be impossible, the article said. A more advisable choice is to streamline coverage of the law, making it more applicable and effective.

The new State assets management law should define the role of the newly-established State-owned Assets Supervision and Administration Commission. The rights, duties and accountability of the department should be clearly established.

The law should also define the proper relationship between the central State assets management body and its local counterparts.

Moreover, the transaction rules, pricing mechanism and transaction procedures of State assets should be clarified.

The applicability of the law should be especially stressed, the article said.

Proper supervisors should be empowered to counter State assets managers. When State assets losses or property rights disputes arise, the law should ensure they can be submitted to the court for resolution.

option

optionProtect farmers' land use rights


2003-11-24
China Daily


The transfer of farmers' rights to use contracted land should be better regulated to protect their interests.

China's land system allows farmers to use land based on a land contract. The so-called household contract responsibility system that links farmers' income with output started in the 1980s.

China's law stipulates the land is owned by the State or collective units, for example, villages, but individuals can obtain the right to use it.

In recent years, as the pace of urbanization picks up, more and more farmland has been used for construction purposes.

The transfer of farmers' rights of land use is now in the spotlight.

The 16th National Congress of the Communist Party of China (CPC) last November and the Third Plenum of the 16th CPC Central Committee in early October this year both said land use right transfers should be conducted legally and voluntarily. Farmers must be properly compensated for the transfers.

If handled well, such transfers will help the country urbanize and address the troublesome problem of redundant rural labourers.

However, if not properly dealt with, they may jeopardize the interests of farmers.

Many factors in the transfer of land use rights can hurt farmers' interests.

In the land market, the demand for land far exceeds supply. Many urban developers are desperately seeking plots of land for profitable construction projects but can find few that are designated for construction purposes.

Given the imbalance, the collectives in rural areas - for example, a village committee, the de facto owner of farmers' land - may force farmers to agree to transfer their rights if there is little supervision from a third party. Those collectives could profit greatly from such deals.

The State has the power to regulate land use, as stipulated in the amended Law of Land Administration passed in 1998.

It allows for State requisition of land from collective ownership.

After the resumed land is sold for real estate or other urban construction projects at a high price, most of the returns are poured into urban areas while only a small part goes to rural regions.

Companies that deal with farm produce processing, storage and sales are an important force pushing forward the development of agriculture. But while they seek co-operation with individual farmers, they can pressure some, who have little bargaining power, to transfer their land use rights.

If these companies take advantage of policy loopholes to use the land for urban, rather than rural, development, farmers may be forced off their land. This has happened in some places.

Our land registry needs to be made more comprehensive.

The land use registry provides formal State recognition of farmers' land use rights. It can play a vital role in protecting such rights. But the State has not devised a registry system capable of dealing with changes to farmers' land use rights after their contracts expire.

To better protect farmers' interests, such a system should be promptly put in place.

Some local governments have experimented with different forms of registries.
Some give farmers land contract certificates and urge village committees to sign the agreements with farmers.

But they also need to deal systematically with the different certificates for different kinds of land, such as farmland, grassland and forest land.

By doing so, governments will not only secure farmers' land use contracts, but enhance awareness of their rights.

The country passed its Rural Land Contracting Law in late August 2002. It took effect on March 1.

This law has played an important part in protecting farm land and farmers' rights.
But more detailed implementation procedures should be drafted to make better use of the law.

The government's policies, such as requiring land use and requisition plans and granting land transaction approvals, should be made consistent and transparent. The implementation of the policies should put farmers on an equal footing with developers.

Procedures for land requisitions should also be clarified to rein in the wilful behaviour of some local governments. This will be achieved in amendments to the current land administration law.

Meanwhile, the standards for compensation for farmers' loss of land use rights should be adjusted to properly reflect market prices.

To prevent rural collective organizations, enterprises or individuals from encroaching upon farmers' land, the government must strengthen land use management, especially in some places where urbanization is unregulated and victimizes farmers.
The Ministry of Land and Resources has revealed that 140,254 cases involving land management malpractice were uncovered last year, a 12 per cent increase year on year.

And now there are more than 5,000 economic development zones nationwide, covering 30,000 square kilometres of land, much of which is farmland since the zones are generally located in suburban areas.

This should sound alarm bells for policy-makers.

The author is a researcher with the Rural Development Institute of the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences. The article was originally published in the Beijing-based Chinese Rural Economy magazine.

option

optionExperts: Laws must specify rights


2004-03-31
China Daily

China's new amendment to the Constitution, which highlights the protection of individuals' rights, needs more specific legislation to support the concepts it outlines, legal and economic scholars say.
Additional legislative efforts are needed to translate the Constitution from "a law on paper" into concrete guarantees of individuals' rights, said Hu Jinguang, a law professor at the Renmin University of China.

The 10th National People's Congress (NPC), the country's top legislative body, adopted the fourth amendment to the 1982 Constitution at its annual meeting earlier this month.

The Constitution was previously amended in 1988, 1993 and 1999.

The amendment stipulates that citizens' lawful private property is inviolable, putting private assets on an equal footing with public property.

Under the provisions of the amendment, the nation can in some circumstances, expropriate private property in accordance with the law when the public interest will be served. But it must compensate citizens for the expropriation, the amendment states.

In more general terms, the amendment says the country respects and preserves the overarching concept of human rights for the first time within the Constitution, although Chinese law has always safeguarded the rights of individuals.

"Individuals are the primary beneficiaries of such a stipulation since they gain the right to oppose arbitrary interference by the government into their private lives or property," said Mo Jihong, a researcher at the Institute of Legal Studies under the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences (CASS).

"All government and judicial bodies should increase their awareness of protecting private property now that the Constitution has been amended," Mo said.

Zhou Wangsheng, a professor of law with the Centre for Legislation at Peking University, said the constitutional amendment is major social progress.

"It not only reflects the fruits of domestic economic reform but tallies with trends in international economic integration and global constitutional developments," Zhou said.

But he said the constitutional amendment is just a prelude to further legislation that is needed.

"More specific legislation, including a separate law on the protection of private property, is needed to support the constitutional stipulation," Zhou said.

Mo said the draft law on tangible property rights, which is expected to be reviewed by the national lawmakers this year, will clearly define the rights individuals hold on their belongings and the nature of these rights.

The draft civil code, which was preliminarily reviewed by the NPC Standing Committee in 2002, also specifies these rights, Mo said, adding that both pieces of legislation will offer the legal basis for individuals to exercise their rights.

Zhang Houyi, a researcher at the Institute of Social Studies under the social science academy, said more emphasis should be put on the protection of common people especially the poor and disadvantaged, referring to the grievously postponed payments of salaries of farmers-turned workers.

The constitutional amendment also replaces the term "martial law" by the term "state of emergency," paving the way for legislation on states of emergency conditions.

National legislators are expected to review a draft law on states of emergency at the end of this year.

Emergency usually refers to an unforeseen combination of circumstances or a resulting state that calls for immediate action to maintain public order and ensure the safety of people's lives and property.

Extraordinary measures usually involve restrictions on citizens' rights and freedoms to varying extents.

The draft bill on states of emergency will ensure that the country is ruled by law even under emergency circumstances, said Yu An, a professor of administrative law with the School of Public Policy and Management of Tsinghua University, who participated in writing the draft bill.

Yu said the proposal will set an upper limit for state power and a floor level for the citizens' rights at the same time, forcing the government to take rational and restricted measures in the states of emergency.

option

optionCultural differences needs to be considered in commercial arbitration


2004-05-19
Xinhua

International commercial arbitration needs to consider culture differences, William Slate, chairman of the American Arbitration Association, said in Beijing Tuesday.
During the 17th conference of the International Council for Commercial Arbitration (ICCA), Slate said different clients from different countries and regions have different values, languages, religions and cultures and if these differences are not paid attention to, cultural biases would emerge in arbitration and effect its process and results.

Good understanding of cultural differences can not only bring fair results but also bring more cases to the arbitrator, he said.

Sally Harpole, governing council member of Hong Kong International Arbitration Center, said many trade disputes were brought by misunderstandings arising from different cultures, languages and business habits.

"Some disputes even occur at the very beginning when the two parties signed contracts and they didn't even notice," she said.

She held that the enterprises should learn to avoid raising disputes, such as setting up dispute management organizations. Arbitrators should also study the cultural background of the clients.

In fact, some organizations have already noticed the cultural impact on international commercial arbitration. A brochure of Coudert Brothers LLP, a long-standing pioneer in international law, stresses "most of the lawyers in its China branch speak Mandarin" to attract Chinese clients.

Slate said the reason that the Hong Kong Arbitration Center attracts both Chinese and western clients is that Hong Kong enjoys a Chinese culture and western legal system.

He said the arbitration circle should examine the subject more deeply for a better comprehension, engage in cross-cultural training for arbitrators.

The most important is that dialogues should not be limited in the arbitration circle. Economists, social scientists, linguists and business executives should be invited and by doing so arbitration can be strengthened and improved, Slate said.

The three-day ICCA conference was opened Sunday, with more than 400 economic and legal experts from 47 countries attending the meeting.